use the A-bomb and kill a large civilian population without any remorse or apology. They are the ones who violently invade and ravage lands belonging to others and yet have the audacity to call Islām what they have called it. This is the highest form of hypocrisy.

Human beings are dynamic creatures with the ability to be peaceful and loving in one instance while being hostile and aggressive the next. The same person may be smiling one minute and fuming with rage just moments later. Islām recognizes these intrinsic features in human beings and trains one to mould them and harness them properly, when to be angry and when to be happy, when to be kind and when to be fierce.

Islām does not condone the idea of humiliation and subjugation by other human beings. For this reason we find that, after years of persecution at the hands of the Quraysh, the divine ordinance for battle was received by the Holy Prophet (S). Initially, some of the weaker Muslims showed hesitation at the idea of picking up weapons and fighting for their rights. Some lacked the courage while others were content being in the camp of the oppressed. However, the Prophet (S) recited to them the Holy verses wherein the believers were called to arms to protect their rights and property, and the Muslims complied.

The beauty of the battles that followed was the humanity that was displayed by the Prophet (S) and his followers. Usually, when one goes to war, they tend

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to lose their ability of distinguishing right from wrong and many atrocities are committed by soldiers because of this. The adrenaline rush caused by life threatening situations clouds their judgment and they end up killing innocents and doing all sort of beastly things. The latest example of this is what the USA did (and continues to do) in ‘Iraq, Afghanistan and Guantanamo.

The Prophet (S) warned his soldiers not to fight in such a manner that they end up neglecting the basic principles that make a human being human. They were not to kill innocent women, children, old people and the handicapped. They were not permitted to cut down trees or fill up wells. They were to offer the enemy an opportunity to surrender and not pursue those who fled from battle. These were just some of the numerous injunctions that the Holy Prophet (S) laid down for the Muslims at a time when the norm among the Arabs was to treat the enemy ruthlessly and without any mercy whatsoever.

The Holy Prophet (S), or the ‘supreme commander’ as the author of this work refers to him time and again, had no interest in building a large empire. Rather, he readily made those who were willing to live peacefully, his allies. The sword was only raised against open enemies who were out to destroy Islām and the Muslims.

Further, many of the defeated prisoners of war became Muslims when they saw how the Prophet (S) treated them. Contrary to their expectation of harsh

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and brutal treatment, they were treated with kindness and mercy. Just this was enough to make many of them Muslims. This was how Islām really spread, not at the tip of the blade as wrongly hypothesized by Western Orientalists.

Translating this work posed a number of challenges. First, the enormous amount of transliteration. In Arabic, different dialects pronounce words differently. We have tried as much as possible to conform with the standard Arabic transliteration but this has not been a priority and at times one Arabic name may have been transliterated in two or three similar ways. Care has been taken, however, that this should in no way cause any confusion about who or what is being referred to and it should only be deemed a handicap of the English language, nothing more.

Second, one will notice that this work, which was originally a dissertation for the author’s PhD, has a string of footnotes as long as the eye can see! These footnotes only serve to provide a basis for his statements and refer the reader to where he or she can turn if more information or detail is required.

Third, I have taken the liberty of adding my own notes wherever I thought a clarification was required. As the translator of this work, probably the hardest thing for me was to contend with some conclusions that are made by the author. Unfortunately, the esteemed author has not endeavored to carry out any scrutiny of the sources he has referred to and has

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taken these reports at face value. As a student of history, the importance of carefully analyzing reports and looking for possible loopholes and inconsistencies is well known to me.

However, since my task was to translate this otherwise important work, I only added very brief notes in areas where I disagreed with the author. Readers who are interested can of course delve deeper and conduct their own research in those areas.

Finally, I would like to extend my thanks and gratitude to Dr. Abu Fizza Haydari for meticulously going through my final draft, editing and proofreading it. And of course thanks is due to the publishers Heritage International Inc. for undertaking the task of getting this work translated and published. All praise, in the end, belongs only to the Almighty.

indeed Thou art the Owner of Praise, the Owner of Glory.

This research and study under the heading: ‘Military Management in the Battles of the Prophet of Allah, Muhammad (S)’ was presented as a doctorate thesis in the field of history at the Université Saint-Joseph, Lebanon, and is now before the respected readers. We have tried to spare no effort in this work with the hope that we would be successful in arriving at the truth [about the Prophet (S) as an exemplary military commander].

The present work has been arranged as follows:

Preface: Here the genesis of the techniques and strategies of battle in Islām and its most salient characteristics have been mentioned.

Introduction: I begin by explaining my methodology of choice in this study based on what I have discussed in the different sections and precede this by mentioning the narrators and important figures who have written about the history of the Prophet (S) and those who wrote war chronicles.

Section One: In this section, the characteristics of the Arab military before Islām have been discussed.

Section Two: Here ‘military command’ and that which pertains to it is, including the qualities of a commander, have been discussed.

Section Three: Here the different types of ‘army command centers and headquarters’ in the Muslim army have been explained.

Section Four: In this section the branches of ‘security and intelligence’ and related issues are mentioned.

Section Five: Details about the ‘base of operations’ along with its arrangement and plans have been outlined.

Section Six: Here ‘relief support units’, ‘munitions’, ‘medical services’,

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‘management of booty’ and, in the end, ‘role of women’ in the Muslim army have been explained.

Conclusion: Finally, the issue of ‘growth and development of the Muslim army and the causes and factors that led to their victory in battle’ is discussed; after which I have listed the most important sources and references that have been used in this study.

Muhammad Dhāhir Watr

5 Dhu al-Qa’adah 1405 AH

history.

Indeed, because of the [consecutive] battles and wars that took place between Islām and the enemies and adversaries of this faith and its teachings, there was a need for a strong army that would be led by a skilled and capable leader who was well versed in military management and universally accepted and supported, so that he could implement Jihād as one of the most important ordinances and commandments of Islām(1). And in addition to these principles, he would give importance to the humanitarian aspect of warfare(2) and the understanding of the human condition while calling for, and sparing no efforts in trying to achieve, global reform(3).

With regards to war and its military aspects, by having clear goals that he would strive to attain and with strong foresight that results from a dynamic intellect, and also by being quick to act and carry out surprise attacks(4) and implementing new strategies, he (S) became an excellent commander. With observation we find that this form of [military] management was superior in terms of ‘the sublime ethics of war’ meaning bravery, boldness, fearlessness and lack of lassitude in difficult situations. Aside from this, with greater intelligence and contemplation, and with insight and illumination, he sought to evaluate the important issues and take advantage of the resources and means at his disposal without negligence or indolence, presenting plans of action, and relying on dynamic organization and diverse leadership(5).

As in the present age ‘ideology’ was similarly accepted as a sublime spiritual fountainhead which armies are

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supposed to take benefit from(1), any commander who would read about their ideology [in the future, even] after centuries would take inspiration from it and follow it.

Acquiring techniques of warfare depends upon various external factors, conditions and available resources that are beyond time, place(2) or numbers, and are tools that the commander has at his disposal. Verily, the most important factor that distinguishes this form of military management from other types of military management that came later is the ‘ethics and moral attributes’ of the military command, which developed from war. It is an undisputed fact that the Prophet (S) had all the qualities of a political, social and universal leader in himself, and that he sought help from the Almighty with complete faith(3).

He had the attributes of faith, valor, steadfastness and insight in matters of principles and military sciences(4), and he inherited these lofty traits from his forefathers(5). Similarly, in his social interaction with friends and foes(6), he was magnanimous and would always keep his word and fulfill his vows and promises(7). He would spend time in contemplation and then form his opinion with regards to planning and strategizing [for battle](8) and would employ exemplary organization skills.

As for the relationship between the commander and the army, he (S) was distinguished for his sacrificing and ever-friendly(9) disposition. Obedience [to him] was strengthened by full cognizance and acceptance of his prophethood by the people under him; therefore this was an impetus for them to believe in his orders out of conviction

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[that he was commanded by the Almighty](1).

The Prophet was always aware of the problems being faced by his troops. He would be sympathetic towards them and would always, both in times of war and peace(2), be with them and act as a good role model for them so that they could emulate him in all matters and follow him(3). He would never proceed with his forces without seeking counsel first, as is observed in the battles of Badr, Uhud etc(4). His relationship with the troops was always based on the principles of humanity, compassion, compromise, sympathy, reform, magnanimity(5), aiding the oppressed, assisting in the doing of good, actively opposing tyranny and transgression, and equality among the people(6).

And this would include all the people despite their differences(7). In order to achieve this objective, he had to bring the community together at the same level under one common rubric and imbibe love and compassion for each other in their hearts(8). He needed to establish a link of brotherhood between them and counter their lassitude and uncertainty. Because of this, those who had gathered around him[(9) were all pleased with him and had come to accept this matter.

All the goals that he worked towards and strived to attain, and the preparations that he made so that the brutal battles may be won internally and externally, are truly astounding for the people who read about them, and all the people who have learnt about this type of leadership are left with no option but

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to admit its greatness. The American Michael Hart says: ‘My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world's most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular level.’(1)

The Englishman Montgomery Watt says: ‘His readiness to undergo persecutions for his beliefs, the high moral character of the men who believed in him and looked up to him as leader, and the greatness of his ultimate achievement - all argue his fundamental integrity. To suppose Muhammad an impostor raises more problems than it solves. Moreover, none of the great figures of history is so poorly appreciated in the West as Muhammad.’(2)

As for the reason behind my choosing this subject, it is because of the military and historic significance(3) that it has. It clarifies aspects of ingenuity, management and administration that have been largely ignored by researchers or have only been mentioned by them in passing. This is because they only try to concentrate their efforts in approaching the subject of military expeditions(4) in a specific manner, not in the way the great documenters of expeditions and battles(5) have presented them. In this regard, this present research can be taken as an example for the personal and social interactions between all the nations and peoples of the world(6). We will present certain parts of this in summary.

in order to counter the threats of the enemy. He organized numerous secret fact-finding military missions(1), sending them to different parts of the Arabian Peninsula(2). By sending these secret missions and appointing commanders for each of them, the Holy Prophet (S) was able to fight both the internal and external(3) (i.e. outside the Arabian Peninsula) enemies. The result of these wars was the foundation of faith and conviction in humane warfare that became fundamental for the Muslims and others.

Numerous scholars like Ibn Shihāb al-Zuhri, Wāqidi, Ibn Hishām and others have written about this. It is certain that this belief originated from faith in God and it was evident that it bestowed a special energy to the fighters that made them fearless and as a result, their struggles and bravery became unmatched and not even the slightest inkling of fear remained in them.

As for the factors and motivations of this ideology, they were manifested in the most beautiful form in faith in a specific goal that consisted of the establishment of justice and the struggle towards universal peace and security, and also in countering oppression and exploitation, treachery, greed, evil habits and imprudent patrimony of authority and power that was practiced by the Arabs in the age of Jāhiliyya. I have studied this ideology and its basis after the advent of Islām. During the reigns of the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates and after that, many wars took place and in all of them lessons were taken from the past. They would

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refer to this very period (i.e. the time of the Prophet) and seek to take lessons from it.

That which transpired later, after the battles in the early days of Islām, was all a continuation of that which took place during the time of the Prophet (S) in its basis, motivations and factors except that it transpired under a different set of circumstances(1). Thus we find this ideology being adopted after the companions of the Prophet (S) such as Abu ‘Ubayda Ibn Jarrāh(2), Sa’d Ibn Abi Waqqās(3) and Khālid Ibn Walid(4) had become accustomed to it, having implemented it with precision and understanding in the battlefields alongside the Holy Prophet (S), and after him in Qādisiyya and Yarmuk, and later during the time of the Caliphs(5).

Therefore, they and others gained guidance through this ideology and fundamental principle that was observed in the first battles, and these principles were like a keepsake that was brought from the biggest wars and battlefields of victory. However, with the passing of time, their successors began to forget these principles and became lax and negligent in preserving them, and for this reason they had to face losses in battles.

This is a plain indication and a strong proof for the necessity of studying and analyzing the art and method of warfare at that time. So even now, after so much time has passed, the importance of studying these wars and battles has not waned. It continues to seek an in-depth reading and a profound understanding in order

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to deduce and discover matters concerning warfare that are lesson-giving, because it is this aspect that does not expire. The ideas and effects related to the ‘principles of war’ have not perished or reduced in value over the period of time.

about the enemy during the preparatory stages of war, and through this he was able to secretly gain knowledge about the numbers of the enemy and their accoutrements. For example, he sent Hudhayfa in the Battle of the Confederates (Ahzāb), telling him: ‘Go and gather information about this group and during this mission do not make contact with anyone until you return back to me(1).’

The Holy Prophet (S) used ‘psychological warfare’ as one of the most important strategies of war and in this way he was able to put fear and awe in the hearts of the enemy so that they may be forced to flee or surrender without the need for combat. This is just what he did in the Conquest of Makkah. He ordered that the army should light ten thousand fires, so that by this he could put fear and anxiety in the hearts of the enemy(2).

Similarly, the Prophet (S) initiated pre-emptive war(3) in order to avert possible threats from the enemy that he was unable to counter. In this way, before the enemy could gather all its forces for war, he would take quick action. For this type of war, he put in place rules and regulations and encapsulated them with perfect precision and profound understanding. He then placed them alongside ‘speed, agility and stealth’. In this method, by conducting ‘surprise attacks’ on the enemy, they would end up being stunned and straggled and became, from the start of the invasion, crippled and rendered helpless in

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their very own land, and this action would bring with it many other advantages and benefits(1).

In the same way, the Prophet (S) would conduct ‘lightening-strikes’ which was a form of war wherein it would not take a significant amount of time and would be ‘swift, short, unexpected and stealthy’. It would also require a smaller force with fewer accoutrements. This type of operation would be carried out in the face of an enemy that was larger in number and in many instances(2), with [other] new strategies, it gave an upper hand to the Muslims, especially in the battles of Badr, Khandaq and Hunayn.

The Prophet (S) also employed the ‘war of uprising’(3) and through it, he would raise the inhabitants of a town, including their men, women and children, to stand up and fight against the invading armies that were intent on destroying them. This type of action was clearly seen in the Battle of the Confederates. In this instance, he made all the people participate jointly to dig a ditch in the battlefield, and this was considered a novel tactic that was previously unknown(4). This method then became an example for those who took part in later wars.

He (S) similarly used the strategy of ‘laying siege’ and completely surrounding the enemy so that in this way, they would be cut off from the outside world and could not send for reinforcements and support. Of course he was careful to ensure that they were out of the range of enemy arrows

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and would set camp in a place where he and the forces would be safe from the reach and view of the enemy, continuing this until those who were besieged were forced to come out and surrender(1).

The Holy Prophet (S) made use of the ‘war of impediments’ which was previously unknown to the Arabs and with which they were unfamiliar(2).

When the Prophet (S) was informed that the enemy had gathered at night in order to carry out a dangerous attack against him, he sought counsel from his troops. The advisers agreed with the proposal made by Salmān al-Fārsi that a ditch be dug (around the city of Madina)(3). Thus by digging a ditch, the basis of a unique and new form of war, meaning the ‘war of impediments’ was created, which was in line with the idea of defense and using of the appropriate weapon in the given situation.

The result of this tactic was that it made the enemy perplexed and baffled. They did not know how to react to what they saw. Being unable to pass over or go through the ditch, they turned back hopeless. This later became known as the ‘Battle of the Ditch’ because of this great feat.

When the Holy Prophet (S) foresaw rebellion, siege and one on one combat from the side of the defenders of the city, he would turn to the ‘war of the city and streets’(4) which consisted of precise and particular measures. The Conquest of Makkah is indeed one example of

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this type of warfare(1). In this case, the army of Islām entered the city of Makkah in order to conquer it, after having strengthened its siege in the four corners of the city.

Troops were placed in each corner according to the importance of that part of the city, and specific accoutrements were used and commanders appointed. The effect of this was that the people in Makkah became terrified as they looked at the great numbers of soldiers in the Muslim army. When this strong army entered Makkah, no blood was spilt(2). This was something the likes of which has never been witnessed, nor has anything like it been recorded or reported in the past(3).

The Prophet (S) had some strategies that he would always use against the enemies in all the battles. Some of these strategies were: ‘creating a possibility for easy movement’, ‘sending secret information gathering missions’, ‘carrying out surprise attacks on the enemy’ along with ‘movement with stealth and furtiveness’(4), ‘use of traps and artifices’(5), ‘taking advantage of the most suitable time and place and appointing the most appropriate commanders for each mission’(6). And in all these issues he displayed no lassitude nor did he fall short from implementing them perfectly.

In order to promote the needed balance, create hope and increase the morale of the army(7), he would try to study the facets of the tactics and strategies used either before, during or after the battle(8). Every factor that contributed in giving the Muslims an upper hand over the

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enemy in battlefield(1) was considered carefully and studied by him, because victory is a goal that every commander strives for in the wars he fights.

At this point it is necessary mention the issue of attacking those who were fleeing and running away from the battlefield – about which many have erred. The Prophet (S) never used to attack those who were fleeing from the battlefield after having lost the battle, just in order to fulfill his desires or act upon his inclinations. However, some have said that the Muslim army would pursue the defeated enemy, especially as in the case of the battle of Hunayn. It must be said that the Prophet (S) would avail the opportunity to the defeated enemy to flee if they so wished; because throwing a spear towards the back of the enemy was something that would lower the respect of the commander in the eyes of the soldiers and would cause him to be despised.

In the battles of Dhāt al-Suwayq, Dhāt al-Ruqā’ and al-Ghābah, he did not attack those who were fleeing; and also in the battle of Hunayn, he only pursued those enemies who were not surrendering or fleeing(2), but were instead trying to move to a better position in order to regroup and launch further attacks on the Muslims, because at this stage the battle had not ended and it only came to an end when the forces of the Hawāzin were defeated and Tā’if came under siege(3)(4). Similarly, in other missions

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that resulted in war, the fleeing enemy was never attacked(1).

lack of sufficient food, and this forced the commanders to distribute the little available resources among the soldiers in an equitable manner(1), and in situations where soldiers had nothing, they were forced to eat the meat of horses, wild donkeys etc(2). With respect to drinks like water, which was not always enough or accessible due to the lack of wells, the situation was very difficult(3) and the same procedure of equal distribution was applied(4).

As for the modes of transport that mostly consisted of camels and other animals, the soldiers would use them for traversing long distances and transferring booty that was gained from the battles. Actually, this booty was considered an important source for the acquisition of weapons and military provisions, in addition to the sale of horses and other equipment which constituted another source.(5)

On the other hand, the Noble Prophet (S) gave importance to the disabled and the handicapped(6), because they would always remain with the army until the necessary resources for tending to their needs became available.

For this type of forces, there was no special arrangement in the Muslim army (as is the case today). Their role and important responsibilities included: Keeping watch and constant surveillance, providing partial reinforcements, tending to the injured, removing the bodies of those who were killed from the battlefield and burying them, patrolling and serving during the night, taking care of those who were in shock, gathering and settling(7), selecting suitable places where there were no plagues or infectious diseases – in which

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the commander would himself assist them – and in the end, the injured would be taken [by them] to a tent in Madina that was erected for them next to the Masjid of the Prophet (S)(1).

Despite all the difficulties [they faced], and the lack of provisions and reinforcements, the army of Islām would overpower the enemy that was better equipped in all these respects. The reason for this was that the Prophet (S) would use various forms of warfare according to what he deemed appropriate given the circumstances, based on his experience and brilliance(2).

and the conditions that need to be met by them and also how the information should be gotten from the enemy, the means that must be used, how to send this information to the commander of the army and how the information is used by the commander, are all explained.

In these discussions, we give another example of the organization of the soldiers and their formations in different situations(1). They would sometimes be arranged into one, two or three groups. The ‘arrow makers’ would be in the first or second group along with the archers, and the infantry would be behind the cavalry. The commander and the central watcher would be positioned in the center of the formation.

Taking this into consideration, the subject being discussed comprises of both detailed and general topics about effects and consequences, and explanation of the important points and goals(2). Actually, we find that this subject includes a variety of topics, some of which are examined closely and thereby linked to others. All these topics are important for arriving at a clear and conclusive understanding of the subject.

before war(1).

Forgiveness and pardon before punishment.(2)

Leniency and clemency before retribution.

Therefore, we find that all the battles he fought were always for the good of humanity, so he would not seek to punish anyone before they had done anything wrong, as [opposed to what] we see in our present day.

The Prophet of Allah (S) would prevent the killing of the aged, women, children, prisoners and those who did not participate in the war and did not help the enemy(3). He would prohibit this fervently. He also forbade torture and the disfiguring of dead bodies(4). He instructed the Muslims to be good, kind and compassionate to the people and to be affable and friendly with them(5).

He gave a perfect example of mercy in the Conquest of Makkah where, despite victory over the enemy, he treated them with the utmost kindness and compassion. If he wanted, he could have just as easily taken revenge on all of them, but instead he forgave them saying: Go, you are all freed(6). In the battle of Dhat al-Ruqā’, ‘Amr bin Hārith was captured trying to assassinate the Prophet(7), however the Prophet pardoned him and set him free(8).

The Prophet (S) would treat the captives and prisoners of war with mercy and kindness. He would do favors to many of them (and set them free)(9). At the same time, he told the soldiers to treat them well(10). For example, in one of the battles, he personally untied the hands of one of the prisoners whom he heard wailing(11).

He

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propagated the idea of World Peace and instituted the word ‘peace’ as a greeting among all the children of Adam(1). He showed this in the Treaty of Hudaybiyya when he sent Uthmān bin ‘Affān to negotiate with the Quraysh, and he accepted a number of representatives and groups that were selected to carry out this task. According to this treaty, he accepted the conditions put forward by the oppressive enemy for the cessation of war(2).

During the conquest (of Makkah), he deposed the commander whom he had given the order to take the city(3) because of the slogans that he was chanting which gave a totally different impression about the goals of the conquest(4).

He paid special attention in choosing pious and righteous representatives to take the message to the rulers and kings of the world, because these representatives would have to convey the message using logic and wisdom in order to successfully invite them to accept Islām(5).

In the present age, there is no need that is greater than what the Prophet (S) was striving for. A strong need is felt for sincere action that is free from vain desire and hostility and for leadership that is truthful and righteous, which can lead the people towards humanity and a moral ethic of warfare that is far from mere bloodshed and slaughter.

These issues encompass a vast plethora of discussions that a humble person such as myself feels incapable of doing justice to. However, I shall spare no effort in trying my utmost to

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work on it. I do not claim that this research is complete and final, but I pursued this subject because I found it delectable and interesting, and I realized that the fruits of this research would be very beneficial.

I would truly like to express my gratitude to Dr. Ibrahim Baydhun of the University of Lebanon for his help and guidance in the arrangement and layout of this work and his attention to detail regarded the material presented in it. I will never forget his mentoring and the explanations and elucidations that he shared with me and assisted me with, to such an extent that he would at times leave his entire library – which is filled with many valuable works – at my disposal and I was able to gain access to many original sources and handwritten manuscripts.

I take this opportunity to thank the administrator and staff of the Dhahiriyyah Damascus Library who facilitated the access to important texts and manuscripts that I needed. I also would like to thank all those who participated in this work with me and even those who found out about my research proposal and went through it. I thank them all.

Was-salaam

Muhammad Dhāhir Watr

research, differing viewpoints on military management (with the aim of finding the best one), the principles of war, the fundamental role of ideology (and motivation) and the art of war in its new form are discussed alongside each other. This paper comprises of six sections and one preface - wherein the most important available sources on this subject are mentioned.

Section One:

In this section, the traits and distinctions of the Arab military before Islām have been mentioned and the most important points that are related to their military management like: the purpose of battle, number of combatants, means of transport etc. have been discussed.

Section Two:

This section consists of the important discussion on ‘Military Command’ in which issues like moral qualities of a commander are discussed. These include: heightened intelligence, foresight and prudence, awareness of matters that he is faced with, understanding the rules and principles of war such as defensive warfare, sudden warfare, revolutionary warfare, offensive warfare and psychological warfare.

Section Three:

This section aims to explain the workings of the military bases and under this heading, details are given about staff headquarters and management issues pertaining to it are discussed, including:

Department of planning: this department deals with the general policies of the army, the enumeration of soldiers, arming them, understanding the enemy and related issues.

Department of consultation: this is the consultative body or the command post of the war and its members are all recognized for their knowledge, acumen and understanding of issues pertaining to warfare.

Department of spiritual guidance: this department is

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responsible for increasing the zeal of the fighters, studying the assignments and tours of duty.

Section Four:

This section discusses the branch and department of ‘Security and Intelligence’ that is responsible for gathering information and intelligence from the enemy and analyzing it, and in the event of the intelligence being true, passing it to the supreme commander so that he may issue the correct orders.

Section Five:

In this section we discuss about the ‘Base of Operations’ which makes arrangements for the required equipment for planning, execution, training, creation and perfection of weaponry and all the other supplies for warfare and includes the following departments:

Department of operations: this is the department that is responsible for selecting the commander who leads the army in the battlefield, studying the assignments and sending troops and contingents.

Department of training: this department is responsible for training the fighters in the handling of all the tools used in battle including bows and arrows, hand to hand combat etc.

Department of armament: this department is in charge of securing all the supplies of war, weapons, military equipment etc.

Section Six:

This section deals specifically with the department of munitions that has the responsibility of securing munitions, sending support, transport, feeding the soldiers, providing army uniforms, overseeing booty and its distribution and handling medical issues. This department consists of the following sub-departments:

Department of munitions and relief support: this department has the task of providing support to the troops by means of providing supplies and fulfilling their other needs such as drinking water, tents, clothes and

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also removing the injured and dead from the battlefield.

Department of booty: its responsibility is gathering the war booty and categorizing, arranging and distributing it, and identifying those who should be permitted to use it.

Department of medical services: the aim of this department is protecting the wellbeing of the forces, providing medical treatment for those who are injured and incapacitated in battle, and burying the dead.

In this section, the role of women in providing assistance is also discussed.

Conclusion:

In the end, we shall discuss the ‘growth of Islāmic Governance’ after the migration of the Prophet (S) to Madina, the formation of the Islāmic Government under his leadership. The details of his role in nurturing the military forces during wartime and the beginning of the creation and training of the corps will also be discussed. We will examine how this army gained the ability of entering into battle and achieving decisive victory.

In this regard, we find the causes of victory in the Muslim army to be the implementation of the principles and rules of war by their commanders – which the enemy was unaware of at that time and is more in line with the principles and rules of war of today. Similarly, the organization of the army in such a way that a strong spiritual ethos existed among the commanders and the troops, must be considered one of the greatest factors of the Prophet’s (S) success. When one studies the conquests that took place after the era of Prophethood, one finds that

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the Prophet (S) was considered the first conqueror of Islām, because he laid the groundwork and raised the primary pillar (of these conquests) through his own battles.

of war and its management, he has been able to tackle the subject better. We cannot find complete references to the organization of the military except in his treatise. After him, Ibn Sa’d continues his work in the book al-Tabaqāt al-Kubrā and presents a picture of that which Wāqidi had not recorded.

However, the most important books of history about this subject are:

Tārikh Ibn Khayyāt, Bukhāri’s Tārikh al-Kabir, Tārikh Tabari, Tārikh Ibn ‘Asākir, Ibn Atheer’s al-Kāmil fi al-Tārikh, Ibn Katheer’s al-Bidāya wa al-Nihāya, and also some biographical commentaries like Suhayli’s Rawdh al-Unf have also set out to give details of such issues.

Books of Hadith and Jurisprudence have also devoted specific chapters and sections for these matters. The primary ones among these are: Sahih Bukhāri (Chapter 9 – The Book of Battles), Sahih Muslim (Chapter 3 – The Book of Jihād and Expeditions), Sunan al-Tirmidhi (Chapter 2 – The Book of Jihād), Sunan Ibn Dāwud (Chapter 2 – The Book of Jihād and Expeditions), Sunan al-Nasā’i (Chapter 6 – The Book of Jihād), Sunan al-Dārimi (Chapter 2 – The Book of Jihād and Expeditions), Sunan al-Dārqutni (The Book of Expeditions), Musannaf San’āni (Chapter 5), Ibn Hanifa’s al-Maghāzi wa al-Musnad (The book of Jihād and Expeditions), Shāfi’i’s al-Umm (Chapter 6 – The Book of Willful Injury), Humaidi’s al-Musnad (The Book of Battles and Jihād), Abi Sulaymān al-Khitābi’s Ma’ālim al-Sunan and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzi’s al-Tahdhib.

In this context, Sahih Bukhāri is important both historically and militarily as the author has narrated the accounts chronologically and

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recounts the battles in the order in which they took place, starting from the Battle of al-‘Ashirah to the Battle of Tabuk. Similarly, when he explains the battles, he takes all the angles into account, mentioning numerous narratives about it, such that the reader is able to come to a complete and correct understanding of these battles.

Aside from the books that discuss this subject separately, there are various books of history and annals of nations that have also been beneficial in this research. The most important among these are: Arzaqi’s Akhbāru Makkah, Qutb al-Din’s Tārikh Makkah al-Musharrafah, Fāsi’s al-‘Aqd al-Tamin, Bakri’s Mu’jam Mastu’jam and Yāqut al-Hamawi’s Mu’jam al-Buldān.

The most important feature of these histories and chronicles is that they mention the economic situation [at the time], military resources and battle expeditions and similarly give a clear representation of the economic life, which in this age was considered one of the more important issues, and for every discussion on the military it is a necessary factor that needs to be taken into account.

Books about the character of the Prophet (S) also consist of many points about his ‘military management’ and ‘qualities of leadership’ the most important among which include: Ibn Sa’d’s Tabaqāt al-Kubrā (vol. 1 Chapter 2), Tirmidhi’s Shamāil, Faryabi’s Dalā’il al-Nubuwwah, Abu ‘Ali Ansāri’s Sifāt al-Nabi (S), Qādhi ‘Ayyādh’s Shifā, Suyuti’s al-Khasā’is al-Kubrā, Ibn Hajar ‘Asqalāni’s al-Mawāhib al-Daniyya, al-Dhahabi’s Tārikh al-Islām (vol. 1), Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzi’s Zād al-Ma’ād fi Hudā Khayril ‘Ibād (vol. 1 2) and his Furusiyyat al-Muhammadiyyah.

Books

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of biography are also not empty of material on this subject, rather, in many instances provide detailed accounts about the commanders of battles and wars and about the companions who had the responsibility of commanding the armies. Some of these (books) are: Ibn Habib’s al-Muhbir, Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr’s al-Isti’āb fi Ma’rifat al-Ashāb, Ibn Atheer al-Jazari’s Usd al-Ghāba fi Ma’rifat al-Sahābah and Ibn Hajar ‘Asqalāni’s al-Isāba fi Tamyiz al-Sahābah.

The Islāmic conquests at the time of the Prophet (S) and the companions were studied by those who came later and the various aspects and details were presented in a well organized fashion by them. Books of geography and history expound on the conquests within and without the Arabian subcontinent and also talk of the events after the spread of Islām from Madina al-Munawwarah to Damascus, Baghdād, Madā’in, and on the east to India and to Alexandria, Constantinople, Tarablus and Tunis. It could be said that the most important of these works are Ibn Khardāba’s al-Masālik wal-Mamālik [vols. 3,4,5 and 6], Ibn Rusta’s al-A’lāq al-Nafsiyya [Chapter 8] which talks about Madina, Makkah, Haramayn and the southern lands of Arabia.

Ibn Faqih’s al-Buldān [Chapter 10 and 11] talks of Makkah and Alexandria while Ya’qubi’s al-Buldān [Chapter 17 and 18] mentions the Maghreb, Baghdad and their historical importance. Balkhi’s Suwar al-Aqāleem is the first book on geography written in Islām and Istakhri’s al-Masālik wal-Mamālik is also the first book that describes the ‘Islāmic World’.

In Ibn Hawqal’s al-Masālik wal-Mamālik [Chapter 3, 4 and 24] the maps of

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Egypt, Syria, Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula have been drawn and the economical and social situation of Libya has also been portrayed. Muqaddasi has also given a description of Palestine and Syria in his Ahsanu al-Taqāseem fi Ma’rifatil Aqāleem [Chapter 32 and 34].

Mas’udi’s al-Tanbih wal-Ashrāf [Chapter 37] speaks of the life of the Prophet (S), battles and expeditions in which he was the commander, military units, horses and mounts, and all that is related to the military transport. Mas’udi’s recording of the ‘Historical Geography of Battles’, is considered an original source whose narrations can be relied upon, however, unfortunately most of his writings are lost.

Another source is Qazwini’s Athār al-Bilād wa Akhbār al-‘Ibād which discusses geographical history and related issues including the situations and conditions of different lands and their inhabitants. After this, we must mention the Muqaddima of Ibn Khaldun and Qalashqandi’s Subh al-A’shā. These two books record geographical and historical information about different kingdoms, especially Egypt and Syria.

It is noteworthy that more recently books and research works, in both Arabic and English, have been written about the life of the Prophet (S) and his battles with the disbelievers. The most important works in Arabic include: al-Rasul al-Qā’id (S. Khattāb), al-Rasul al-‘Arabi wa Fann al-Harb (General Mustafa Talās), al-‘Abqariyya al-Askariyya fi Ghazawāt al-Rasul, ‘Ali Hāmish al-Sirah (Tāhā Hussain), Hayātu Muhammad (Muhammad Hasanain Haykal), al-‘Abqariyyāt al-Islāmiyya (‘Aqqād) and al-Anwār al-Muhammadiyya (Nabhāni).

The foreign books that have been translated into Arabic and discuss the same subject, we can mention: Muhammad in Makkah

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and Madina (Montgomery Watt), Muhammad, the Prophet of Allah (Dianna), The Heroes (Thomas Carlayle), The First Hundred (Michael Hart) and others.

Many of these works are only limited to military, institutional or ethical issues that form part of the seerah. Because ‘military management’ encompasses all these issues, it is necessary that we discuss all these matters together, taking into consideration their correlation with each other. It is through this that the importance of this subject and its role in revealing the secret of the success of the Holy Prophet (S) and those whom he chose as army commanders, becomes evident.

Now we will take a look at the most important authors and researchers in history who have written on this subject and have left behind important works on the battles and expeditions, and since their importance in relation to this subject varies, we will first study the oldest writings that are relevant and have practical implications and thereafter we will mention others according to their chronology and relevance; in this order: Wāqidi, Ibn Is’hāq, Ibn Shihāb al-Zuhri, Kalā’i and Ibn Sayyid al-Nās.

knowledge and would guard it. He kept aloof from the events and turmoil of his time(1). He believed in the dissemination of knowledge among the people and used to say: ‘In the spread of knowledge there is the strengthening of religion and worldly life and in the path of knowledge all this comes together(2).’

He studied about the seerah from Sa’eed bin al-Musayyab, ‘Urwa bin Zubayr and ‘Ubaydallah bin ‘Abdullah bin Utbah, and in his attitude towards his teachers, he displayed exemplary ethics and morals. He would accompany them, serve them and show the utmost reverence to them(3). Zuhri made efforts to author some works. He would write down what he heard. When his works became known, people turned to him and benefitted greatly from his knowledge.

Zuhri started with Hadith, History and Expeditions. He wrote so much that his writings had to be carried on the backs of animals. When he died, he was in such a position that there was none more learned than him in history.(4) His knowledge was disseminated through his narrators. The most famous of them who lived in Haramayn and Hijāz included: ‘Umar bin Dinar, Yahya bin Sa’eed al-Ansāri, Musa bin ‘Uqba and others. From those who lived in Iraq, the most important ones included: ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umayr, Ismā’il bin Abi Khālid, ‘Atā ibn Sā’ib; and from the other places like Syria and Egypt, there were Mansur bin Sādhān, ‘Abd al-Karim Jazari, Thawr bin Yazid and others.(5)

The merits of Zuhri’s accounts of the expeditions over other

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works are as follows:

They were written with sincerity, honesty, clarity and eloquence. Zuhri had met some of the companions who participated in battles with the Prophet (S) and he has narrated from them about the wars and the strategies of the Holy Prophet (S). The most important of them are: Abdullah bin ‘Umar, Anas bin Mālik, Suhayl bin Sa’d and others(1). Similarly, in al-Musannaf (vol. 5, the chapter on expeditions), we find numerous traditions that Zuhri has narrated from ‘Umar ibn Rāshid. He too, was truthful in narration and reliable in transmission.

Many of the scholars(2) have praised and criticized the narrators of expedition accounts like Ibn Is’hāq and Wāqidi, however Zuhri has been praised by all(3) and has been hailed as the most truthful and highly learned of his time. Therefore, we can rely upon what he has recorded or narrated about the battles of the Prophet (S).

Zuhri had a longstanding experience in recording expeditions(4). He is the oldest writer to formulate a systematic and clear method in this field, therefore his recordings are well-grounded, clear and reliable and have been systematically categorized and are far off from the politics of authorship and other various discrepancies.

Great scholars have narrated from him and Ibn Shihāb al-Zuhri, Ibn Hanbal and others have praised him(1). Mālik called him a Dajjāl(2) and accused him of following the Qādiriyya sect(3) and also deemed him to be one who narrates ahādith with improper and incomplete chains(4).

The Seera of Ibn Is’hāq has only come down to us through the recorders of seera, the most important of whom were: Ibn Hishām, Tabari, Kalā’i, Ibn Sa’d and Ibn Atheer. All of these [people] have not presented the seera of Ibn Is’hāq in the same manner as the original, rather they have mentioned a summary of his statements and recordings. Ibn Hishām has himself acknowledged this in the introduction of his al-Seera al-Nabawiyya(5), so it would be correct to say that this work is actually a summary and a selection of Ibn Is’hāq’s narrations.

He is one of the leaders of those who were involved in recording the seerah [of the Holy Prophet](6) and is the first person to collect the accounts of the expeditions and record them(7). His works are a source of reference for researchers today. The great recorders of expeditions like ‘Aāsim bin Umar Qatāda who wrote al-Siyar wal-Maghāzi gave the following testimony about him: ‘The knowledge that Ibn Is’hāq placed at the disposal of the people through his narrations will never disappear(8).’ When Zuhri was asked about Ibn Is’hāq’s accounts of expeditions, he said ‘he is the most learned of all people about the expeditions(9)’.

Today, the narrations of Ibn Is’hāq that have

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been passed on by many reliable recorders of the seera like ‘Aāsim and Zuhri have reached us(1). It can be said that Ibn Is’hāq is from those scholars who recorded the accounts of the expeditions based on old methods. One day this point was raised in front of him, he said: ‘I am only a safe keeper and recorder of the knowledge of expeditions(2).’

The Merits of Ibn Is’hāq’s Seera:

He is the only person who has narrated the expeditions of the Holy Prophet (S) in its totality(3), because the other Seera recorders have narrated the expeditions in an incomplete and disjointed fashion. Maybe their lifetimes were not enough for them to complete the work and their students did not expound on the details of their expedition accounts and sufficed with mentioning only a number of battles and wars.

The Seera of Ibn Is’hāq is detailed and contains numerous long narrations and includes mention of dates(4). Shāfi’i says: ‘Anyone who wishes to gain expertise about the expeditions needs (to study) Ibn Is’hāq(5).’ Through lengthy odes, he has highlighted the narratives of what transpired on the battlefields(6). All this points to the vastness of the Seera of Ibn Is’hāq. These odes have immortalized the victories and give important information about works, situations and personalities. Even though it is not possible to give exact details about what takes place on the battlefield, all the military strategies and skills employed, some of the particulars about the battles of the Prophet (S) have been directly reported.

born in Madina and died in Baghdād(1). He is buried in the Khayzarān graveyard. He was an author and used to pay special attention in writing [about] the seerah and expeditions (of the Prophet (S)), to such an extent that he became one of the foremost authorities in this field. His most important works are: al-Maghāzi al-Nabawiyya, Fath Afriqiyya, al-Radda, Fath al-‘Ajam, Fath Misr wa Iskandariyya, Akhbār Makkah, Tabaqāt, Futuh al-Iraq, Seerat Abi Bakr, The Battle between the Aus and Khazraj and others(2). The merits of Wāqidi’s works can be outlined as follows:

Precise Information: He has given detailed and precise information about those who participated in the battles, the route taken by the armies, the weapons and modes of transport used, provisions, descriptions of battlefields, the factors that helped in gaining victory or led to them facing difficulties in battle, the location of the martyrdom of soldiers, and anything related to warfare.

Extensive Information: He wrote and recorded everything that was related to the battles(3), such that through his narrations, we learn many of the specifics regarding the military, because he has reported all the different aspects of issues pertaining to warfare and leadership. In this way, the information provided by Wāqidi in the areas of the circumstances of war, its location, the type of ground on which it was fought etc. is of great importance. If his writings about the battles were collected together, it would in itself have been a source for the principles of war and battle at

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the time of the Prophet (S).

Recording of Exact Times(1): In military management, for a commander, time and its determination is of the essence and can make all the difference in the result of the battle; whether it be victory or loss.

Recording of Exact Locations(2): Wāqidi also recorded the exact locations of the battles and through this he gave value to the battlefields where the Prophet (S) fought. Many like Ibn Sa’d, Tabari and Ibn Katheer have narrated from Wāqidi about the birth and Prophethood of the Holy Prophet (S) and also his battles and conquests(3).

Ibn Sa’d’s Tabaqāt al-Kubrā stands out in its military reporting because it has been written according to Wāqidi’s style, meaning he has similarly paid a great deal of attention to the recording of exact times and locations and sometimes describes the locations in which the battles took place and adds on to the narrations of Wāqidi and then, in another place, he discusses the principles of warfare(4). From his writings it can be deduced that he is truthful and his narrations are authentic(5). Many of the important aspects of Wāqidi’s narrations and works were revealed and expounded by his student Ibn Sa’d.

works are: al-Iktifā bimā Tadhammanhu ‘an Maghāzi al-Rasul (S), Maghāzi al-Khulafā (4 volumes), al-Musalsalāt ‘an al-Ahādith and al-Athār wal-Ishārāt.(1)

When his works were published and his message was spread, people came towards him and sought to benefit from him and many attended his teaching sessions. The most famous of these was Abdullah ibn al-Abārid who has eulogized him after his martyrdom(2). With regards to the importance of his writing ‘al-Iktifā’ it must be said that its chain of transmission is strong and it describes the battles and their various aspects in detail, because Kalā’i himself was a military person and had tasted the hardships of war. So if he has recorded something in the seera, he has done so truthfully and with total regard of his responsibility and questionability. Furthermore, in his books one senses an enlightening spirituality that none of the previous writers displayed.

Kalā’i al-Balansi was a leader and a courageous commander who was steadfast in battle and in one of the battles he is said to have addressed one of the fleeing soldiers thus: ‘Do you flee from Paradise?(3)’ He was martyred while he still held the standard in his hand(4) and was encouraging and urging the soldiers to go forth against the enemy. Aside from this, Kalā’i was a great poet who would compose epics and rouse the emotions of the people(5).

under his father and a group of scholars, the most famous of whom was Ibn Daqiq al-‘Eid.(1) This scholar tutored him in religion, Arabic grammar and poetry(2). He gained precedence over his contemporaries in the fields of Seera and history. His most important works include: ‘Uyun al-Athar fi Funun al-Maghāzi wa al-Shamāil wa al-Siyar, Nur al-‘Uyun, Bushrā al-Labib fi Dhikrā al-Habib and Tahsil al-Isāba fi Tafsil al-Sahāba(3).

Many scholars like Qādhi ‘Izz al-Deen Sharif, who has mentioned him in his Wafayāt and Ibn Katheer, Ibn Nāsir al-Deen, Suyuti and others have testified to his great knowledge(4). He compiled the seera in two volumes by narrating what the recorders of the seera before him had written. That which makes his accounts of the expeditions stand out includes:

Precision and Depth: He would select authentic narrations and leave aside the weak ones. He would take this matter very seriously and would do it very well(5). An example of this precision of his can be seen when he summarized his own book ‘Uyun al-Athār and named it Nur al-‘Uyun. In this way it became easy for him to refer to previous works and to present his writings on the seera in a well-documented manner. One of the great scholars has said: “Ibn Sayyid wrote, compiled and corrected a lot in his beautiful handwriting and he created principles for this [also](6).”

Following the Method of Zuhri: Ibn Sayyid al-Nās in his book al-Siyar wal-Tārikh, has followed Zuhri’s method and has compiled all that which relates to the

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military. His ‘Uyun al-Athār is an example of the Maghāzi of Ibn Is’hāq which has shadowed the Seera of Ibn Hishām and is formed of a selection from the Maghāzi of Wāqidi and a selection from scholars of history such as Tabari and Ibn Khayyāt. That which assisted him in this was his great knowledge of the sources of the seera. Ibn Sayyid al-Nās was also a specialist in jurisprudence and would benefit from the scholars of his time and gain knowledge from them. Ibn Zubayr says: “He gained the permission [to narrate traditions] from four-hundred scholars or more.”(1)

Organization, Sequence and Reference: Ibn Katheer has described him thus: “He occupied himself in the pursuit of knowledge and was better in this than everyone else. After he learnt the seera and history, he compiled them in two volumes… grand poetry, well written prose, complete eloquence and proper writing is what he had and he was attributed with kindness and good morals. He was loyal to the principles and practices of the previous scholars that relied on the traditions of the Holy Prophet (S).”

battles and making appropriate use of them. The principles and beliefs through which Islām was manifested caused an increase in the spiritual and emotional uplifting of the soldiers and encouraged them to participate. Previously, an Arab soldier would be motivated by courage(1), display of force(2), a sense of loyalty(3) and selfish motives(4).

The most important mode of transport that were used was the camel(5), as it was capable of going for long without water and was able to bear the dryness and sandstorms of the desert. The most important qualities of the ‘Arabian wars’ were as follows:

all they wanted as booty. They would steal away their cattle and then return home victorious. Some of the Arab tribes even went so far as to march towards neighboring kingdoms(1) and cities that had plenty of food stocks(2). During the age of Jāhiliyya, wars and raids were one of the primary source of sustenance, possession of livestock and booty in times of drought and famine.

b) Bloodlust and revenge: This was caused by social events like marriage and divorce(3), social interactions among the members of a tribe(4), jealousy, malice and competition(5), or because of the establishment of relations by the allies with other tribes.(6)

c) Increasing the status and power of the warring tribe: The fundamental principle was, ‘One who does not kill is killed and one who does not fight is fought’(7). Also, once one tribe loses a battle, their power will never be regained and they are destined to destruction and annihilation and become incapable of defending themselves(8).

d) Increasing the number of forces and soldiers in the army: The sources have not mentioned the size of the pagan Arab armies but they have noted that every tribe, with all its warriors, was considered one ‘army block’(9), and these were the people who would engage the other tribes in battle. When the tribes would join forces, a large army would be formed(10). The number of tribes that came together in a battle against the Greeks numbered

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218 and consisted of more than ten thousand soldiers.

When we refer to the compendiums, lexicons and books of literature, we find that some Arabs paid much attention to the organization and creation of armies while some even independently(1) joined their tribes and entered the battle. Nu’mān bin Mundhir had formed numerous organizations including the battalions called al-Shubhā’, al-Dawwasar(2) and al-Radhā’i’(3).

The following names indicate the number of forces of the various groups of fighters and the types of weapons they used:

Al-Raht – 3 to 10 people(4).

Al-‘Usbah – 10 to 40 people(5).

Al-Miqnab (al-Minsar) – 30 or 40 up to 300 on horseback(6).

Al-Jumrah (al-Qabilah) – 300 to 1,000 on horseback.(7)

Al-Sariyah – 40 to 500(8) and at the very least 5 to 300 people(9).

Al-Kutayba – 100 to 1,000 people or from 400 to 10,000 people(10).

Al-Jaysh (Faylaq or Juhfal) – 100 to 4,000 people(11).

Al-Khamis – from 4,000 to 12,000 people(12).

All these groups or units would be strengthened by the backing of another group. In this case, it would be called Kutaybah wa Jarrajah(13) or Jarradah, Jayshin Lujab and Khamisin ‘Armum(14). The person who commanded a force of more than a thousand would be known as Jarrarayn(15).

The Kutayba (the group with between 100 and 1,000 people) and Jumrah (300 to 1,000 riders) were two of the most important groups in the wars of the Arabs before Islām. However, during the time of the Holy Prophet (S) the Sariyah (consisting of between 50 and 400 people) became the only important group in battle and this name can

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be found in many of the narrations from the companions(1) because this number was also employed before the Hijrah.

The Sariyah was the smallest section of the army(2) and could be formed even by only ten people. For this reason, it was also called ‘Asharatu Rahtin (a group of ten)(3). The Prophet (S) would also send these groups with fewer or greater numbers. They have said: the best companions are four, the best Sirāya (pl. of Sariyah) is made up of four hundred, the best army consists of four thousand and at the most, not exceeding twelve thousand soldiers(4).

e) Weapons: By going through the narratives and poetry of the Age of Ignorance (Jāhiliyyah) we find that there is frequent mention of weapons, and especially the ‘sword(5)’. Other weapons like the arrow, dagger, spear, spearhead, club, bow and the sling(6) that were considered offensive weapons and were used in attacks are also found in their poetry. As for the defensive weapons, they included the armor, shield, helmet and the armor that was worn beneath the helmet(7). These weapons would come from Syria, Yemen and India and some were also made locally.

The Arabs would also use some heavy weaponry like the catapult. The first person to use it was Judhayma al-Abrash(8). Another weapon known as al-Dabbābah(9) was first employed by ‘Abdullah ibn Ju’dah(10). Later the Muslim Arabs modified this weapon and used its improved version in their wars(11).

At that time, an Arab soldier would either fight on foot

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or on horseback. The most important mode of transport at wartime were horses(1), and the forces would ride on them. Horses had some distinct advantages in war, especially speed and agility.

f) The Relationship between the Commander and the Soldiers: Affairs of war and military leadership of a tribe would be in the hands of the head of the tribe, a person who would have the qualities of forbearance, clemency, co-operation, patience, kindness etc(2). All the soldiers, be they freemen or slaves, volunteers or those who have been forced to participate, hired or otherwise, all have to respond to the call for war by the commander and none of them are allowed to disobey him, whether they like it or not, except those who are excused because of being too young or sick. Of course, at times some of the wealthy would disobey the command to participate in battle and would in return pay the fine and penalty for not joining the battle(3).

One of the commanders would draw up the plans for battle, allot commanders for each section, define the assignments, identify the goal and arm the forces. The responsibility for these tasks rested on his shoulders because of his superiority over the others and in the end he would take command over the forces(4). Many of the Arabs in the age of Jāhiliyya were known for their training in archery and their expertise in it. They were able to hit small targets(5) and would also

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train those who did not know archery.

g) Mobilization of forces and Recruitment: It was incumbent and obligatory [to fight] when the tribe needed to be defended or a general command had been issued. So in times of danger, all the people were mobilized. The men, old and young, small children and women too, would prepare and participate in the battle as much as they were able to(1). Here we should mention two groups of fighters: (i) A group that was hired for an agreed sum. (ii) Another group that consisted of slaves who had to fight in the battle without any compensation and would have to stay and serve till the end of the battle. Those who would fight with all their might in order to defend themselves fought with strong will and determination whereas those who were forced to fight and were not paid anything, especially in times of hardship, would flee from the battle.

Conscription was not compulsory and would take place on an individual basis, not collectively. It would be carried out during attacks or in order to join the commander.(2)

h) Dealing with Prisoners: Prisoners (of war) would be dealt with harshly and with cruelty(3). At times they would cut off their noses or tear out their ears from the roots or sever their limbs(4).

Because of this torture, some prisoners would die while others would remain in their service as slaves, or alternatively a ransom could be given to secure

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their freedom(1) or they would be granted a favor for which they would remain obliged(2).

They would also use hostages(3) to exact revenge for the deaths of those taken as prisoners. Just as the ‘Aus did with the Khazraj – they killed three of the slaves who had been taken as hostages (in retaliation for three killed prisoners)(4).

i) Material Support and Backup: This consisted of the collective measures that an army would put in place for its troops including weapons, provisions, food, water etc. The goal behind making these arrangements and providing munitions that were necessary for long drawn-out wars was gaining victory over the enemy and this was achieved by using different means. The most important factors that assisted in sending support were:

Roads: The roads and paths that the pagan Arabs traversed in times of war have been not been clearly mentioned in historical records and some writings after the coming of Islām only give general indications about them. For example: in Ibn Kharadādibah’s al-Masālik wal-Mamālik, Ibn Hawqal’s al-Masālik wal-Mamālik, Mas’udi’s al-Tanbih wal-Ashrāf, Qazwini’s al-Bilād wa Akhbār al-‘Ibād and all the other books of battles and expeditions.

Similarly, the roads that were traversed by the armies of Islām in their conquests and battles have not been mentioned in detailed except in very few sources. Most of the paths that were used by the Muslim armies were the well known main roads and the most important among these were:

(i) Paths near the coasts

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and borders where water was plentiful and wells were many.

(ii) Roads that ran parallel to the Euphrates River that flowed from Iraq to Syria.

(iii) The routes between Yathrib (Madina) and Makkah or between Makkah and Iraq.

(iv) Roads that linked the cities and villages of the Arabian Peninsula(1).

Weapons of War: In the age of Jāhiliyya, weapons of war constituted the most important part of munitions. In the beginning, a soldier would get armed before he went out to war, because no help would reach him during the battle. If, during the heat of battle, his sword broke or his arrows ran out, if he had extras he would exchange them, otherwise he would be unable to continue the fight.

Water and Food: The most important foods that were used in sending support to the fighting soldiers were dates and grapes that were grown in parts of Yemen and Tā’if. Fruits from the trees of Sidr and Miswāk, fish, barley bread and other foods were also sent. Dates were the staple food and Yathrib was known for its plentiful fresh dates. The Arabs were accustomed to eating less and would make to with a few dates for an entire day. When they were very hungry, they would eat animal hide, porcupines, lizards and meat of hunted animals(2).

However, water was considered of strategic importance, because the routes chosen and

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roads taken would be determined by it and efforts would be made to secure drinking water and prevent the enemy from having access to it. This liquid of life was of great importance for the army that wished to set camp in a specific location and they would need to be near a source of water at all times. For this reason, they would take all the necessary measures to store as much water as possible. Ten guards would be posted at wells and springs(1) and in front of man-made water storages large boulders would be placed(2). These reservoirs would become even more important in times of war, and especially defense, when besieged, or in the hot summer months.

Clothes and Military Uniforms: The Arab soldiers of Jāhiliyya wore different varieties of clothes(3), so fighters were indistinguishable for non-combatants, and the soldiers would look alike because of their similar turbans, armor, swords and other military equipment(4). Turbans or caps were worn on the heads and the Jubba or a hooded garment, a shirt or a two-tone robe, trousers, a woolen cloth and striped Yemeni cloth would be worn and feet would be covered with shoes or sandals.

Tents: The tents were made of skin, wool, hair and fur(5). The Arabs would only use tents at the start of battles, because their fighting style was that of ‘charge and attack’ and this was highly disorganized. For this reason, the army did not need to remain outside its area for long periods of time.

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The Muslim armies during the time of the Prophet (S) also did not use tents frequently for this very same reason(1).

Modes of Transportation: The most important modes of transport were the horse and camel(2). The horse was used because of its speed and control at all times and in different situations, be it during attacks, laying siege, face to face combat, ambush, night raids etc. Mares were especially used in night raids, attacks, chases, maneuvers and difficult tasks, and were more effective than stallions(3). Khālid bin Walid used to fight battles while riding on a mare(4). Similarly, mules were used in sieges and ambushes.

Many of those who fought on horseback were well known(5), and they would observe the principles of combat to the letter. They did this by using the horses and concentrating their efforts on the weak points of the enemy’s defenses or on the weak and timid people(6). As a result, they would be successful in opening up fissures in the line of defense, penetrating their ranks and creating terror and fright in their hearts(7). Camels were not useful for battle(8) but they could be used for transporting soldiers, weapons, munitions and provisions from place to place. This animal was known for its ability to bear hunger and thirst, move through the harsh desert and carry heavy loads over long distances.

Booty: All that was taken over by the army or tribe after it was victorious over its enemy was known as booty(9). War booty became the property of

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the overpowering forces who could use it as they wished(1). In the age of Jāhiliyya, one fourth of the booty(2) was separated by the commander(3). All that was acquired without war (al-Nashitah)(4) and the booty that could not be divided (al-Fudhul) was reserved for the commander(5).

A poet has described the booty in this verse:

Laka al-Rubā’u wal-Safāya

Wa Hukmuka wal-Nashitah wal-Fudhul(6)

In the same way, the killer would take possession of what the one who was killed had with him [on the battlefield]. With the advent of Islām, Khums was prescribed(7). The law of Salab (that which was taken from one who was killed in battle) was left as it was.

protective barriers around the cities, creating canals from rivers and seas and keeping patrol ships in order to prevent the incursion of the enemy, creating points of defense along the border and repelling the threats of attacking tribes. Aside from this, guard units were formed by the tribes in return for payment and compensation that was given to the heads of the tribes so that they would protect the borders. These tribes were used to protect some of the more remote areas and they would establish their repositories for storing weapons and food in their land.

It can be said that the Sassanids would utilize the Arabs in their wars. When the Arabs saw the oppression and cruelty of the Sassanids against their own people, they would break the pacts. Udhaynah(1) the king of Tadmar rose up against the Sassanids (under Shāpur the First), fought a war against him and was victorious. However, the kings that came after Shāpur the First were able to gain victory over the Arabs, especially during the reign of Shāpur Dhul Aktāf(2) the person who later made a peace treaty with the Arabs.(3)

By studying the wars of the Arabs against the Sassanids, we find that they were not united under the leadership of one commander(4); because every tribe had its own head and it was not possible for him to give up his leadership. Disagreements among them was the norm and therefore they were not able to unite with other tribes. As a result, each one

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of them would rise up to defend itself without the assistance of another. Jealousy, malice and hatred was rife among them(1); to such an extent that the Sassanids would incite some of the tribes to fight against others(2). It is obvious that this had a tremendous impact in the wars that were fought against the enemies.

The Sassanids were always afraid of fighting in the desert, and they were unable to stand the lack of water and harsh conditions of these lands. When the Arabs fought against their ally, they would arrange to transfer water, camels and all that was necessary for war in the desert, to the army(3). The enemy was never able to defeat the Arabs in their own land, because they were fully aware about the conditions of their land. The Arabs would sometimes take recourse to guerilla warfare(4) and would attack the supply routes, stores and armories.

Bi’āth that took place between the Aws and the Khazraj(1).

By studying the details of these wars and battles, we find that the Arabs never used to fight for goals and purposes that were sensible and that had resulted from careful thought and consideration, rather their wars would have other motives, including tribal ones(2). These types of war were continuous and never-ending, and as such, they would always be practicing [and preparing] for war. It was as if they were habituated to war or that they liked it and were inclined to it. During the advent of Islām, some of the warriors joined the army that was formed after the migration [to Madina] with the intention of defeating the enemy, who were living under harsh conditions and were able to establish themselves in other places(3).

The distinguishing factor of the Arabs in their wars against the external enemies was that they would unite with other tribes in some battles, like in the battle of Dhi Qār(4) that took place after the event of Yawm ‘Ayn Abāgh and in which they were victorious. However, they would [then] separate and fight internal battles against each other and this made them weak and led to their defeat(5).

undisputable that the Holy Prophet (S) had the greatest morals, such that he was praised by Allah thus: And indeed you possess a great character(1). His having such a character made him a successful commander who was able to attain the goals and gain momentous victories in many of his battles.

His most praiseworthy traits were:

He was kind to everyone(2) and was courteous with the soldiers and his people in all circumstances(3). He was trustworthy and truthful(4), loyal to his covenants and pacts(5). When he got angry, he would swallow his anger and when he had the power (to exact revenge), he would turn a blind eye(6). A prime example from the instances when this can be witnessed was the conquest of Makkah(7) - when there was an opportunity to take revenge against those who persecuted him and his followers, he forgave them all.

He was sincere in the actions he performed for God and in the service of the people. He brought peace between the people and established friendship between the opposing factions of the Aus and Khazraj, and even the Muhājirs and Ansārs. He removed malice, enmity, hatred and sedition from them and gave everyone their rightful position(8).

He would enjoin people to do good and forbid them from evil through struggle and the expounding of its importance, [and through] patience in hardships, tribulations, hopelessness and persecution of the people [the disbelievers](9). Indeed these lofty characteristics were a sign of his greatness as a leader.

Patience became the cornerstone of his leadership

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by which he would persevere against the enemies. Kindness and courtesy were the ornaments of his command and his respect, veneration, love and humility among the troops brought about a sense of brotherhood and love among them and gave them a feeling of closeness to their leader. His other qualities were forbearance and forgiveness. All these qualities of the Prophet (S) presented him as the light of guidance for all those who would be given the responsibility for leadership.

pondering about the situation of his community, we come to the conclusion that the Holy Prophet (S) was the wisest person in the world. This is because he was able to reform a community that was accustomed to harshness and violence and had ingrained [in themselves] the qualities of vainglory and callousness. He trained them and took their affairs in hand and led them out of ignorance into knowledge and guidance; in such a way that despite their past, they became his fervent supporters. They carried on his message and spread it throughout the world and stood up to fight by his side(1).

The Noble Prophet (S), by his own acumen, devised new methods in the ‘art of warfare’, ‘government’, ‘administration’, ‘politics’, ‘economics’, ‘social order’ etc. On this basis, in the Battle of Badr(2), he initiated battle formations. In the Battle of Ahzāb(3) he dug a trench around the city. In the expedition of Hudaybiyyah(4) he negotiated with the Quraysh and made a pact with them, the great benefits of which were only seen later. In the same way, he would use new strategies in the battlefields that assisted him in gaining victory over the enemies and they were stunned and perplexed by the [new] tactics.

The greatest and most important intellectual traits of the Holy Prophet (S) were: reflection, contemplation and far-sightedness. These attributes were deduced from his many feats in the battles, the most important of which was his choice and selection of the first soldiers from among the Quraysh

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and the Muhājirin without the participation of the Ansār. The wisdom behind this was that the Ansār has made a vow in the Second Pledge of ‘Aqabah(1) that they would help and support the Prophet in Madina and for this reason it was evident that the Muhājirs would have to play the main role in battles and wars.

However, after some time, without making any reference to the pledge, the Holy Prophet (S) informed the Ansār and made it clear to them that their participation and assistance in the battles was required. From the other instances where the wisdom and prudence of the Prophet we can cite the treaties that he would make with neighboring tribes(2); because through this he would gain access to various desert routes that were frequented by the caravans of the Quraysh on their way to Syria(3).

In the Battle of Uhud he ordered a group of archers to position themselves on the mountain side(4) and to remain there until they were allowed by him to leave their post and it was seen how those archers disobeyed the order of the Holy Prophet (S). When they thought that victory had been gained, they abandoned their post in order to take their share of the booty, thereby granting the enemy easy access and enabling them to overturn the outcome of the battle.

The Holy Prophet (S) wanted the archers to remain in their positions on the mountain so that after the victory is achieved in this fight, the forces could

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increase in their strength through peaceful means and the awe and glory of the Muslim army may be elevated both within and outside the borders. About this Zuhri says: ‘There was no bigger victory that was gained in Islām before this.’

The Noble Prophet (S) would deal cautiously(1) with the Jews and hypocrites who lived in the neighboring areas.

A good commander also needs a creative and an innovative mind with superior intelligence and the Prophet (S) was distinguished with these very attributes. He manifested this in certain instances, the most important of which were:

The creation and establishment of a state(2) and the selection of warriors who would be harsh against their enemies and merciful and kind with their friends(3). With these principles, the Holy Prophet (S) would fight battles against the Quraysh, the Jews and the hypocrites(4). He planned the stages of battle and begin studying the strategies of war with the Quraysh and the possibility of gaining control of Madina and its surrounding areas. He was the one who envisioned the war with the Romans(5) which was later realized by the army of Islām and this was another prime example of his far-sightedness and vision.

The Prophet, with his vision and insight, foresaw that the Jews of Khaybar would soon rebel against the Muslim army just as the Jews of Bani Nadhir and Bani Quraydha has done, so he made all the necessary preparations for such an occurrence. In the meantime, he forbade the tribe of Bani Asad from helping the

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Jews of Kahybar(1) in any way and prevented the pact of unity that was about to be made between them. As a result, he made it possible to weaken the Jewish forces and then send an army the likes of which they had never faced to fight them.

During the Expedition of Bani Mustalaq(2), he married Juwayrah the daughter of Hārith. Not long thereafter, the tribe of Bani Mustalaq accepted Islām group by group. At the same time, the mission carried out by Usāma bin Zayd(3) was also successful and resulted in a great victory.

Even though many of the commanders of the Muslim army lacked the vision and far-sightedness of their great leader, the Holy Prophet (S), they would nonetheless turn to themselves and accept these obvious and evident truths. The greatest reflections of the Prophet (S) and his superiority of intellect were manifested in the following matters:

Khazraj.

He advised them to be the representatives for the propagation of Islām in Yathrib. The next year, before the commencement of the Hajj rituals, a group that was bigger than the first group, came to meet with the Prophet (S) and pledge allegiance to him, and this was the first official pledge of allegiance of the people of Madina(1). After the pact, the Prophet (S) send Mus’ab ibn ‘Umayr(2) to teach the people of this newly ‘converted’ city. He should therefore be considered the first emissary of the newly founded Islāmic state.

Thirteen years after the appointment of the Prophet, a group comprised of 73 men and women from the chiefs and nobles of the Aus and Khazraj came for Hajj and make a pact with the Holy Prophet (S) in which they vowed to defend him just as they would defend their honor and their children. This pact became known as the ‘Second Pledge of ‘Aqaba’(3). From the outcomes and consequences of this planning was the spread of the Islāmic faith and the securing of the basic material and security needs of the Muslims in Madina and support for them against the persecution [of the enemies] and the formation of an army to face the threat of the Quraysh and their allies.

The Prophet (S) organized an army comprising of the Muhājirin and the Ansār. The Ansārs were made up of the Aus and Khazraj while the Muhājirs consisted of all the different tribes and were considered among the foremost experts

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of warfare in the army. The Holy Prophet (S) appointed a commander for each tribe and also appointed one general commander over them all.

In every battle(1), he would organize them according to the needs, natural resources, enmity, friendship and terrain. His soldiers were arranged and divided into the front-line, the rear, the right flank, the left flank and the heart of the army. The Prophet gave a lot of importance to military intelligence and information [about the enemy](2). In the same way, he would send some soldiers in martyrdom-seeking Sariya missions, like the Sariya of Muhammad ibn Maslamah that was given the mission of assassinating Ka’b ibn Ashraf(3) because of his insolence and malice against Islām, the leadership [of the Prophet] and all the Muslims. Or like the Sariya of ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Ateek(4) who was given the mission of killing Salām ibn Abi al-Huqayq, and other similar missions that were sent.

Changing the commands in accordance with the changing circumstances of the battle(1).

d) Maintaining the ability of making intellectual decisions and offer continuous guidance and leadership even during the most difficult times in the battlefield(2).

e) He would decide on the realization of victory.

the desired goal. For instance, in the battles of ‘Dhi Amr’ and ‘Bani Salim’(1) he put the focus on the right flank(2) and in all the other battles like Uhud, would identify the weaknesses in the enemy army and focus on it(3).

Transferring and moving the command post during battle was necessary in order to maintain a control over the forces and urge them to remain strong and move forward. In order to protect the forces and organize them in specific formations, the Holy Prophet (S)(4) would shift his command post depending on the changing circumstances during battle.

In the Battle of Uhud, the Prophet (S) chose a juncture and a means of shifting(5) the command post to a new location. In the Battle of Khaybar, he set up four command posts(6). He positioned the central command post at the uppermost corner of the fortress al-Natāh and stationed the furthermost post in Rajee’(7) and later ordered that the central command post should be moved to a new location that was better suited strategically.

One of the most important traits and strategic acumen of a commander is the ability to face new scenarios that may be encountered in battle. He needs to be creative and resourceful and should be well aware of the realities that would enable him to reach the road of liberation [from the enemy’s grasp] and victory. It is in this way that experiential knowledge in examination is a way which follows the intellect in order to arrive at correct decisions(8).

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The Noble Prophet (S), with his far-sightedness, vision, skill and intellectual brilliance, understood this and applied it to solve all the problems and execute all the missions that the commander was responsible for.

the Treaty of Hudaybiyya(1) which turned out to be a great victory for the Muslims.

In the Battle of Muta, he informed of the impending martyrdom of three commanders in his speech(2). In the Expedition to Tabuk, he dismantled the borders of the Byzantine Empire(3) in order to open the way for the Muslim army to enter their lands(4). All these decisions were made by the far-sightedness and perspicacity that the Prophet (S) had in politics, economics, sociology, matters pertaining to warfare and his ability to gauge individuals and groups both within and without in issues of this world and the hereafter.

so given the weapons and resources that were available, and this is [also] a practice of the new form of warfare

(xii) Strengthening the morale of his own soldiers(1) in such a way that they would not fear death

(xiii) Creating an atmosphere of security in all the various battlefields; and all of these were from the great principles of warfare of the Holy Prophet (S).

Just as the Noble Prophet (S) was aware of the principles of war, he was also skilled in the use of both defensive and offensive warfare. He would use defensive warfare when constrained and execute attacks when necessary. When the threat was averted, he would have no need for either.

It is for certain that when the Prophet (S) had weak forces and few resources, he would take up defense(2). For this reason, in the beginning of his mission(3), his defensive stance was evident, because at this time he was prey to the persecution and harassment and was forced to migrate; an affair that brought nothing but good for him. In Madina, his intention and goal, except in a few cases when he had no choice but to take up defense(4), was to attack(5). When he had a strong and complete army, he turned to offensive warfare(6). This method is one of the more advanced styles of war – which he used when sending the Sariya missions and laying the groundwork for battle(7) before the great Battle of Badr, which was an offensive battle. The methods and means

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by which this offensive warfare would be carried out were:

1. Killing(1) the people who were in the way of the Islāmic revolution.

2. Swift reprisal(2) for those who were always ready to oppress and tyrannize.

3. Making pacts of unity(3) with the neighboring tribes.

4. Focusing the [army’s] strength(4) on some of the more important fights against the enemies.

When the Battle of Uhud took place, he was forced to temporarily take up a defensive position, but this defensive war was again changed back into an offensive war in the Battle of Hamrā al-Asad(5) and the Muslim army was able to retake the victory from the enemy with its attacking forces and overturn the outcome.(6) The Prophet (S) continued to face the enemy and conduct pre-emptive strikes(7) until the Battle of Khandaq took place in which he also came out victorious. After the Battle of Khandaq, he used offensive warfare continuously and endlessly. He would say: Now it is we that must take the initiative to fight the enemy while they cannot fight us, and we should take the initiative to go towards them.(8)

attack the enemy before they could rise up [and launch an attack on the Muslims.(1)

The most important principles of this type of war that the Prophet (S) relied upon were: swiftness, stealth, surprise attacks, moving the war to the enemy’s area at the right time and place, acquiring of precise information, increasing the morale of the attacking fighters, deploying the forces sparingly and minimizing loses. With these principles, he opened up the way of attaining greater victory over the enemy.

The Prophet started pre-emptive war in the Battle of Bani Saleem(2). He marched his forces towards the tribes of Ghatfān and Saleem who had gathered at the waters of Qarqarat al-Kadar(3). He carried out a surprise attack on them which lead to a greater victory over them. This was the same strategy applied in the Battle of Dhi Amr against the Bani Tha’labah, Ghatfān and Muhārib tribes to overpower them.(4) In this case, he obtained information(5) and then carried out a perfect Sariya mission(6) wherein he did not utilize all the forces he had, rather he only deployed those whom he needed in every battle, in accordance with the forces of the allies and enemies, and in this way, he put the principle of ‘deploying the forces sparingly’ into practice.

In the aforementioned battle (of Dhi Amr), the number of soldiers were four hundred and fifty(7) whereas in the next battle (the Battle of Bahrān) the number was reduced to three hundred(8). The Prophet (S) appointed Salamah bin ‘Abd al-Asad al-Makhzumi(9) as

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the leader of the mission and ordered him to march quickly(1), day and night, so that he can reach the Bani Asad before they could recruit their forces(2). In order to carry out the surprise attack, the commander would move stealthily, march by night(3) and use routes that were not common. He would take advantage of the time and place when the enemy is most vulnerable, just as was done in the Battle of Bani Mustalaq(4) where an attack was carried out while they were busy watering their animals(5) at a place known as al-Marisee’ near the shore(6).

losses; because it terrified the enemy and made him continuously come under intense hardships and tribulations. In this state, in the face of lightning attacks, they would be forced to hesitate and end up surrendering without putting up any resistance. As a result, the number of martyrs and wounded [in this type of warfare] would be reduced.

In offensive battles, the Holy Prophet (S) would always try to have a greater number of forces [than the enemy]. In the Battle of Bani Quraydha, the number of forces in the Muslim army was three thousand compared to seven hundred and fifty from the Bani Quraydha. In the Battle of Khaybar 1,500 fighters were sent to face one thousand Jews of Kahybar, and in the Conquest of Makkah, ten thousand men faced the entire city of Makkah; and similarly this superiority was seen in most of the Sariya missions that were sent(1)...

In battles where it was not possible to gain superiority as far as the number of forces was concerned, like in the Battle of Hunayn(2), he implemented lightning strikes. In this battle, the number of soldiers in the Muslim army was twelve thousand against the twenty thousand from the Hawāzin, the Watheeq and other tribes. This attack was commanded by people who were distinguished for caution, resistance(3), utilizing the time and place(4), swiftness that was greater(5) than the speed of the enemy(6), changing and adapting quickly in the face of changing circumstances and making choices(7) based on them, focusing the attention on

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the enemy and obtaining strong intelligence(1) about them. All this factors made the Muslim army superior and enabled them to gain victory.

with the fleeing enemy army at Dhi Qirad(1) but was forced to return back from the same route. After this, the Prophet (S) sent out many missions(2) to fight against the enemy, but he would always command them not to pursue the enemy if they were victorious.

When he sent Abi Salamah ibn ‘Abd al-Asad al-Makhzumi to fight the Bani Asad, he instructed him: Go towards the land of the Bani Asad and carry out an attack on them before they can gather together against you(3). Similarly, in the other missions like the Sariya of Usāmah ibn Zayd(4) that was sent to (fight) the Abnā, there was no effort to pursue the defeated and fleeing soldiers.

battles, especially the Battle of Bani Saleem, Bani al-Mustalaq and Badr, as well as other battles(1).

c) ‘Surprise’ was a constituent of all the offensive battles and military missions, especially Badr, and was part of the foray. Just as seen in the Battle of Bani Quraydha, Khaybar, the Sariya of ‘Ali ibn Abi Tālib (‘a) against the Banu Sa’d and the Sariya of Usāma bin Zayd.(2)

d) Speed: as witnessed in the battle against the Bani Muhārib and the Bani Tha’labah in the Battle of Dhāt al-Ruqā’(3) and in other Sariya missions(4).

e) Deception in Time and Place: this was another distinguishing feature of the military operations conducted by the Muslim army that was used in the Battles of Khandaq and Khaybar(5).

The commander who was given the task of carrying out an attack was someone who was physically strong, had good hearing, strong sight and was free from any ailment or malady that could impede him during the operation. Similarly, the Prophet (S) would take into consideration the goal and the time [together] - like in the Battle of Khaybar(6), the place - as in the Battle of Khandaq(7), and all three i.e. time, place and the objective – as in the Sariya of Usāma bin Zayd to Abnā(8), so that the enemy could be attacked when they were least prepared for battle.

The Noble Prophet (S) prevented the fighters from raising their voices or shouting and screaming, and in

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the Battle of Badr he ordered that the bells of the camels should be removed from their necks(1). He would always encourage his troops to use new ways and methods for carrying out attacks.

will be more beneficial for us than if you openly help us. So go forward, for war is deception and cunning(1). In this mission, he successfully dispersed the enemy and this resulted in a victory for the Muslims.

In the war of Bani Lahyān, the supreme commander portrayed the type of battle, the time and the route taken in a different way [to what he actually intended](2). In the Battle of Khaybar, he used trickery and deception against the Ghatfān(3) and they were not able to join with the forces at Khaybar and thus returned to their homeland. In the Conquest of Makkah(4), the Prophet (S) misled the Quraysh by sending Abi Qatāda ibn Rabi’ towards the direction of Najd, thus misdirecting and distracting them from his real target (which was Makkah), and by equivocation(5) and trickery, he cut off all the routes in and out of Makkah(6). In the Battle of Muta also, Khālid bin Walid used this tactic(7). And in this way, by increasing the movements of the army, the enemy was tricked into believing that a large number of reinforcements had come to the aid of the Muslim army, so they became frightened and turned back.

battles like Waddān, Bawāt and al-‘Asheera; and also towards the eastern regions after the battle of Badr(1). The Prophet (S) gained an upper hand in the following ways:

Inventing new ways of warfare: like in the Battle of Badr, the battle of the fortresses and the lightning strikes(2)...

Focusing the forces at the appropriate time and place(3), as in the Battle of Uhud and Hunayn.

Being swift as was required by the conditions of battle(4), like in many of the battles and Sariya missions.

Destruction of most of the enemy forces(5), like in the Battle of Badr, Hunayn and Bani Quraydha.

Restricting the freedom of the enemy, like in the battles of Badr, Quraydha and Khaybar(6).

Putting the enemy forces in hardship and difficulty(7), just like cutting off any reinforcements from the Bani Quraydha and besieging them.

Burning down the date palms of Bani Nadhir and the gardens of Tā’if(8).

Gaining access to the backup forces of the enemy and restricting or destroying them(9), such that the Prophet (S) would make his forces reach the enemy and take their horses as booty.

The Holy Prophet (S) did not always seek to have a larger army than the enemy(10). For instance, in the Sariya of Hamza, the number of soldiers was thirty as opposed to the three hundred Makkans. In the Battle of Badr, 313 [Muslim] fighters went up against one thousand polytheists. In the Battle of Uhud, seven hundred came to face three thousand polytheists, and in the Battle of Ahzāb, three thousand faced ten thousand infidels. However, he

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mostly sought to gain superiority as far as the excellence of the forces were concerned(1) just as in the battles of Hamrā al-Asad, Badr al-Aākhar and Bani al-Mustalaq.

In some of the battles, despite the greater number of enemy forces and weapons(2), he would gain decisive victories over them for which the battles of Badr and Hunayn are perfect examples. Nonetheless, he would change the number of forces sent in every different situation. In the Battle of Bani Quraydha, there was a relatively large number of forces as compared to the enemy(3) as was also the case in the War of Bani Lahyān(4).

The Prophet (S) would not attack one tribe or one group in a single strike(5). Rather, he would divide the enemy in order to gain complete victory and dominance of them materially and spiritually. For example, he divided the Jewish forces into the following: Bani Qaynuqā, Bani Nadhir, Bani Quraydha and [the Jews of] Khaybar. He attacked each of these groups separately. For instance, in the Battle of Ahzāb, he attacked the Jews separately from the Quraysh(6) and the Bani Ghatfān separately from them both(7) and in the Battle of Hunayn, he also divided the enemy i.e. he separated the front-line from the soldiers who were behind and then launched an attack on them.

the attacks were swift] and this would weaken the resolve of the enemy while strengthening the morale of the attacking army such that the enemy was unable to launch a counter attack(1). In order to achieve the desired swiftness, the Prophet embarked on training the forces(2) and made them practice it in all the consecutive battles(3) and missions(4) that would be carried out to face the enemy. In this way, the soldiers became accustomed(5) to move swiftly and fight in the battles without making mistakes.

The modes of transport used by the Prophet played an important role in attaining the desired speed. These consisted mainly of horses and camels. The Muslim army also relied on being quick in getting ready for war(6) and in order to instantaneously face the enemy and recruit forces, they needed material resources and manpower.

In order to achieve this, the Prophet (S) used the following methods:

Swiftness in defense and attack(7): In defense, like in the battles of Uhud and Khandaq and in attack, like in the battles and Sariya missions of Bani Saleem, Dhi Amr, Bahrān, Dhāt al-Ruqā’, Dumat al-Jundal, the Sariya of Abi ‘Ubayda ibn al-Jarrāh, Abi Salama and al-Khabt, this was clearly seen(8).

Speed in besieging(9): Like in the battles of Bani Qaynuqā, Bani Quraydha and Khaybar.

Quickness in marching forward: In the battles and missions like Badr, when the enemies were heading towards al-Udwat al-Dunyā, they overtook them and also in the battles of Bani Saleem, Dhāt al-Ruqā’, Bani Quraydha, Bani Lahyān, the Sariya of Muhammad

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ibn Maslamah to kill Ka’b ibn Ashraf, the Sariya of Zayd bin Hāritha to attack the caravan of the Quraysh and the Sariya of Abi Salamah where he journeyed by day and night in order to reach the enemy.

Speed in acquiring information and intelligence: Like in the battles of Badr, Dhāt al-Ruqā’, Bani al-Mustalaq, Khaybar, the Conquest of Makkah and the Sariya of Muhammad bin Maslamah to destroy the Bani Bakr, (the Sariya of) ‘Akāsha bin Mahsan against the Bani Asad and Ghālib bin ‘Abdillah al-Laythi against the Bani Murrah(1).

Swiftness in counter attacks: Like in the Battle of Uhud(2) and in lightning strikes(3) like in the Battle of Hunayn.

Speed in [carrying out] other missions(4): Including in the Sariya missions of ‘Umayr ibn ‘Uday to kill ‘Asmā’, of Sālim bin ‘Umayr to kill Ibn Abi ‘Ifk, of Muhammad bin Maslamah to kill Ka’b ibn Ashraf, Of ‘Abdullah bin Anees to kill Sufyān ibn Khālid al-Hadhali and of ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Ateek in order to kill Abi Rāfi’.

Swiftness in attack(5): In battles and Sariya missions like Dumat al-Jundal, Bani al-Mustalaq, Ibn Quraydha, Bani Lahyānm the Sariya of ‘Ali ibn Abi Tālib (‘a) [who was sent] towards the Bani Sa’d, Bashir ibn Sa’d Ansāri who was sent to the Bani Murrah and Usāma bin Zayd towards the Abnā.

Speed in preventive war: Like in the battles and Sariya missions of Dhi Amr, Bahrān, Dhāt al-Ruqā’, Dumat al-Jundal, Bani al-Mustalaq, the Sariya of Abi Salamah, Abi ‘Ubaydah ibn Jarrāh for revenge from the Bani Tha’labah, and

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al-Khabat(1).

Swiftness in Lightning Strikes(2): Like in the battles of Dhāt al-Ruqā’, Bani Quraydha, Dhi Qirad and the Sariya of Zayd ibn Hāritha against the tribe of Judhām.

Quickness in raids(3): In the battle of Dhāt al-Ruqā’ and other Sariya missions.

special status as a knowledgeable and spiritual leader included:

a) Selecting appropriate agents(1).

b) The people were content with his fairness and justice(2)...

c) Preparing all the people completely(3).

d) Establishing of affinity and affection between them(4).

e) Guiding both armed and unarmed forces towards a common goal(5).

f) Acquiring new friends and allies(6).

g) Humiliating the tyrants and despots(7).

h) Demonstrating how the Islāmic system is superior to polytheism and other systems(8).

i) Teaching and propagating the new ideology(9).

j) Making others love faith and hate disbelief(10).

k) Being the best role model as a leader(11).

who is frightened begins imagining things that are far from reality. For example, in the Battle of Khaybar, the tribe of Ghatfān imagined that their lands were under attack by the Muslim army, so they turned back and returned out of fear(1) but when they reached their land they found nothing of what they had imagined. The same thing that happened to the Ghatfān happened to the Jews of Khaybar also and this made them ready to surrender and seek peace and conciliation(2). An army that becomes frightened and scared is unable to benefit from their weapons and fight in battle, and even if they fight, they would be very weak and disorganized in battle and this would result in nothing but [loss or] surrender to their enemy.

Because of being overcome by fear, the commander of the army of the inhabitants of Khaybar was unable to shoot the arrows from his bow even after readying them for firing, and his forces had become weary and weak.(3)

The level of fear can be clearly seen in the words of one Jewish person who was granted amnesty by the Prophet (S): The inhabitants of this place have been destroyed out of fear of you(4).

From the first time that the Holy Prophet (S) sent a Sariya mission(5) to fight against the enemy, he relied on psychological warfare. After the first battle, all this changed(6) and he began to use it against the Quraysh and ended it against the Romans. Through this practice, a number

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of enemies would flee before coming face to face with the Muslim army(1) just like what happened in the Battle of Bani Saleem and in other battles.

Some of the enemies like the inhabitants of Akeedar, Jurbā’ and Yuhannā would seek [to make] peace pacts(2). Many groups from Arab tribes would frequently come to him to sign peace treaties while others would fight with fear and weakness(3), like the tribes of Hawāzin and Thaqeef in the Battle of Hunayn and the people of Makkah during the Conquest of Makkah. Other groups would also be on the watch for this [Muslim] army and would be frightened of it, like the fear of the Romans in the battles of Dumat al-Jundal and Tabuk(4).

The Prophet (S) was able to put fear in the heart of the enemy even in the smallest of battles, from a single mission to a large contingent, in such a way that they would fear even coming face to face with him and would become unable to face any army, small or big. The Jews of Bani Nadheer, because of the fear that had entered their hearts, destroyed their houses by their own hands and the hands of the Muslim army(5), and the Banu Lahyān(6) chose to flee and disperse when the army of the Prophet (S) approached them.

However, the Sariya mission would create fear in the enemy as well. Just as the Sariya of ‘Ali ibn Abi Tālib (‘a)(7) with the Bani Sa’d had done - to such an

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extent that they loaded their belongings on their camels(1) and fled along with their leader who said: The army of Muhammad is coming towards us and we are incapable of facing them(2).

A psychological war was also fought with the tribes of Ghatfān through the Sariya of Sa’eed ibn Sa’d al-Ansāri(3), and ‘Uyayna ibn Mihsan(4) and his companions were routed in this battle. When Hārith ibn ‘Auf al-Muriy, who had an allegiance with them called them to stand up and fight, he heard nothing but this response: How strong are the companions of Muhammad who are on our trail! Harith ibn ‘Auf says: I went on the side of the route followed by the army of Muhammad (S) so that I could see them from a distance while they would not see me. I stayed from evening until late in the night but I saw nobody, it was as if nothing was following my allies but fear(5).

Similarly, the Quraysh got scared and took to their heels when they just came face to face with ‘Utbah ibn Aseed (Abu Baseer) al-Thaqafi(6). Even the kings and emperors to whom the Prophet (S) sent emissaries(7) were fearful of the messengers and emissaries.

The most important tools of psychological war that were used by the Prophet of God (S) were intelligence agents and spies whom he would send towards the enemy. These spies would spread rumours that would enervate the enemy and force them to flee. The Prophet (S) sent Ma’bad al-Khuzā’i towards the Quraysh in

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the Battle of Hamrā’ al-Asad(1). He began talking to them about the huge number of forces in the Muslim army and their intense urge for revenge and thirst for blood, thereby influencing the minds of the Quraysh and paralyzing them.

In the Battle of Khandaq, he (S) send Na’im ibn Mas’ud(2) so that he could divide and disperse the confederates and weaken the enemy forces. The Holy Prophet (S) would send Sariya missions in order to fulfill the objectives of psychological war(3) and would at times, like in the expedition to Tabuk, send the entire army for this purpose(4) and at other times he sent only a section of the army(5) like in the Battle of Bani Lahyān where he sent Abu Bakr with a section of the army and ordered him to march towards the Quraysh.

The Prophet (S) arranged all this in order to attain the goals of psychological war and would also in turn seek to destroy the information and intelligence of the enemy. He would achieve this through complete sagacity(6) and by arresting the enemy spies(7), like the shepherd who was arrested on the way to the Battle of Bani Saleem, or the arresting and imprisoning of a spy until the end of the Battle of Bahrān, as well as killing the spy of the Bani Mustalaq because of his not giving up the intelligence, and the interrogation of the spies of Khaybar where the Prophet (S) himself asked them questions.

As for the second instrument [for attaining the

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objectives of psychological warfare], it was displaying the might of the forces that were under the command of the Prophet (S). The features of these forces included:

a) Being invisible: Meaning the divine power that put fear into the hearts of the enemy like the battle of the angels [who participated] in the Battle of Badr(1) and the blowing of storms and [falling] hailstones in the battle of Khandaq(2), until even the commanders of the army of polytheists and their council of chiefs pointed to the invisible force and would say: The God of Muhammad will soon take revenge. And so they turned back.

b) Being undefeatable: As the enemy themselves emphasized this saying: Standing up against him yields no results(3). This transpired with ‘Uyayna ibn Mihsan who had tried numerous times to rise up with his people against the Muslim army. After this happened, he became a Muslim and even led a Sariya mission against the Bani Tamim. In the same way, the Arab tribes who realized that there was nothing to be gained by their enmity with the Muslims saw it prudent to surrender and submit themselves to the Holy Prophet (S) and would thus come to him. As such, the Bani Qaynuqā’, Bani Nadheer, Bani Quraydha and the Jews of Khaybar, all gave a suggestion of peace when they lost hope in their rebellion.

c) They had the spirit [and zeal] of attack(4).

d)

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They would invent new ways and methods of warfare(1).

It is undisputable that this [military] management took on a new form in the Battle of Hamrā al-Asad. During this battle, the Prophet (S) took the wounded and handicapped along with his army(2) and ordered that many fires be lighted(3) so that the enemy would think that the Muslim army was large and powerful(4). In the Battle of Hudaybiyya, he pulled his cloak and his garment to one side and left his right arm openly visible and ordered the Muslims to do the same, saying: May Allah bless the one who displays the strength of his arm(5).

prayer he would not leave precaution, rather he was careful and cautious. Another trait of his was ‘softness accompanied with firmness’ which would be seen in the different circumstances of battle and because of the quickly changing conditions, he would issue new commands and orders.

‘Speed in (issuing) command(S)’(1) was considered important by him in order to tackle the new circumstances [that came up in battle] and was a necessary condition for the ‘centralization of command’(2) which the Prophet (S) stressed upon and of which he was the protector in its essence and foundation. This was considered one of the loftiest personal traits of his command; because all of the struggles and military resources that were spent for attaining the goal would be recruited and organized by himself and in this way his renown as a commander spread both internally and externally and this was sufficient to cause the enemies to flee before having to march towards them.

the Holy Prophet’s body had all these features that spoke of his ability and genius in leadership, and all this also agrees with what has been mentioned by the scholars of modern science(1).

the orphans and grant them refuge. He would show kindness to the poor and needy(1) and instructed the people to be good to their servants(2). He even showed mercy to animals(3) and forbade the people from harming them(4).

The attention and consideration of the Noble Prophet (S) would also include (inanimate) things such that he named his sword ‘Dhul Fiqār’, his shield ‘Dhāt al-Fudhul’(5), his spear ‘Mathwā’(6), his bow ‘al-Katum’(7), and his quiver ‘Kāfur’(8).

One of the most important examples of his humanity was that when the Holy Prophet (S) sent forces to battle or for Sariya missions against the enemy, he would advise them to be friendly with the people(9) and not to carry out raids or night assaults on them. He always preferred to come to a compromise with the enemy instead of killing their menfolk and leave their women and children [without guardians](10). He (S) always instructed that the elderly, the children and the women(11) were not to be tortured and the bodies of the dead(12) must not be disfigured(13).

From his greatest humanitarian traits in war was that when the Quraysh had sought refuge with him, he ended the ‘economic blockade’(14) against them and accepted their request for importing grain from Yemen(15). Despite what they had done to him, he freed the women and children prisoners of Bani Tamim(16). The Noble Prophet (S) called for universal peace(17) in the world and avoided war except in cases where there was no other option(18). The letters that he sent to the

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neighboring kings and rulers were adorned and embellished with calls for peace and conciliation(1). And this is what he instituted as the start of conversation between the Children of Adam(2).

The Holy Prophet (S) gave a new and specific meaning to leadership(3). In some of the battles he appointed more than one commander(4). He outlined the criteria for a befitting commander of the army and its strengthening and he established a bond between the principles of politics and the military(5). He made obedience the secret of discipline, submission and compliance(6). He laid the foundation of new planning, exemplary organization and better leadership(7). He made the soldiers steadfast in [the quest for] good morals and knowledge(8) and put in their hearts the love for death and disinclination towards the life of this world(9).

He (S) would select the commanders and leaders based on their merit and ability(10). He brought the army and the people together equally under his leadership(11) and would grant them as much of the resources as were available(12). In these matters, he included the young and old, the strong and weak, the men and women. He invited them to [follow his] leadership and the ideology of equality and made these two complementary counterparts to each other(13). He always tried to elaborate these ideas and transform them so that he could arrive at his desired goal(14).

as personal matters [of the individual soldiers] like strengthening the spirit of the combatants etc. The following departments fell under their command:

and outside Madina. The Ansār were ready to cooperate and participate in battle and expressed their decision to fight alongside the Muhājirin with their own volition. In this way, they diverted from the Pledge of ‘Aqabah and the allegiance of Wādi Dhafarān(1) and participated in the Battle of Badr and other battles alongside the Muhājirin(2). From this time onwards, the Muslim army consisted of these two groups.

who had forced him to leave his home and were determined to fight against him uncompromisingly(1). The Prophet (S) also began preparing forces and weapons in order to counter them(2) and faced them in a number of battles(3), and in the end he eventually gained victory and they submitted to his wishes.

However, with regards to the Jews, when they showed their enmity by breaking the covenant [they had made with him](4) and took up arms against him, he was forced to fight them or banish them from their lands(5). It was at this time [and for this reason] that the first battle against them took place.

With regards to the other Arab tribes, however, he only entered into battle against them when they were the instigators(6) or when they attempted to wage war against Madina and invade it with their armies(7). Taking this into consideration, he only faced the enemy tribes and dealt with them the way they deserved to be dealt with(8).

As for Rome, he (S) saw it as a grave threat in the way of the Islāmic Revolution, especially since they possessed vast resources and had a lot of political influence in the Arabian provinces(9). Despite this, the Prophet (S) delayed military action against them until an appropriate time and enough preparations had been made to come face to face with the Roman army. For this reason, he did not enter into intense and decisive battles with them as he had done with his previous enemies [i.e. the Quraysh

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and the Jews], rather he launched minor assaults on them(1) and, in order to develop the Muslim army and increase their military might, he embarked on small battles with them.

protecting and safeguarding the status and respect of the members of the household of the Holy Prophet (S)(1). After the Conquest of Makkah, the Prophet (S) also appointed a deputy to manage the important affairs of that city(2).

was in such a way that the Bani Saleem were in front, the Jahinah were in the middle and the Green Column was placed at the back(1). The course of the army’s movement with this arrangement(2) in front of Abu Sufyān and other observers and the station of the supreme commander – which was located in the Green Column – was determined and the soldiers marched in front of them in this order(3).

The carrying of flags(4) was in such a way that in every contingent and unit, a number of flags were hoisted and the main banner was with ‘Ali bin Abi Tālib (‘a) at the central command post in the last unit. The parade and procession of the army was conducted in full military attire(5) in such a way that from the Green Column, nothing but the pupil of their eyes could be seen. The vanguard and the cavaliers marched in front(6). The Banu Saleem were in the front-line with one thousand horsemen and the commander of the paraded columns was selected by the supreme commander(7). Khālid bin Walid was chosen as the commander of three columns of the vanguard:

First: The column under the command of ‘Abbās bin Maradās al-Salami

Second: The column under the command of Khafāf ibn Nudbah

Third: The column under the command of Hajjāj ibn ‘Alāt

Then Zubayr ibn ‘Awām was appointed as the commander of the column of the Muhājirin and Ansār and Abu Dharr al-Ghaffāri was made in charge of the column of the tribe of

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Ghaffār and others.

close relative of his, second in command. Sometimes the selection was not based solely on his past [military] record(1), because the Prophet (S) appointed Usāma bin Zayd, a young commander, as the leader of the army that was sent to Abnām and some of the other great commanders were placed under his command(2).

Similarly, one’s previous record [with regards to accepting Islām] was not a consideration(3); because ‘Amr ibn ‘Aās was given the charge of a Sariya mission in which great companions like Abu ‘Ubayda ibn Jarrāh and other great commanders participated, while it had only been a few months since ‘Amr ibn ‘Aās had accepted Islām(4). Similarly, the rank and status of a person(5) was not a criterion for being appointed a commander. The Holy Prophet (S) made Abu Salama ibn ‘Abd al-Asad Makhzumi the commander of a Sariya mission wherein others who [according of their rank and status] were more deserving, were present(6).

the lapse of Abu Lubāba when he took the wrong course in consultation with the Bani Quraydha(1).

He forgave Hātib bin Abi Balta’ah for his a mistake when sending letters to the enemy before the Conquest of Makkah(2) and this was because of his illustrious track record in the Muslim army. He (S) also ordered Abu ‘Ubayda ibn Jarrāh to cooperate with ‘Amr ibn ‘Aās [who as the commander of the army in Dhāt al-Salāsil] in order to preserve unity.

The Prophet (S) also took it upon himself to ‘refine and purify the souls’ of the Ansār, who constituted a large part of the army. He did this during the distribution of the booty of Hunayn when he saw(3) anger and rage on their faces(4). In the same way, he instilled affection and brotherhood in their hearts(5) and in the end he would be pleased with all the good qualities and merits of his armed forces(6). It is for this very reason that the politics of ‘wisdom and planning’, ‘far-sightedness and judging the character of the army soldiers’, ‘giving greater importance to expediency’, ‘ending quarrels and arguments that lead to listlessness and defeat, before they spread through and pervade the army’, were required.

foundations of discipline was the complete obedience in difficulty and ease, war and peace, likes and dislikes(1).

The most evident signs of this were: ‘absolute obedience’(2), ‘contentment’(3), ‘acceptance of responsibility’(4), ‘the strength to come face to face with dangers’(5), ‘acting with one’s own volition’(6), ‘innovation by the executors’(7), ‘the profundity of the meaning of discipline and its practice by the commander himself (as well)’ and ‘his method and ability in action’, which he would strive in for the attainment of the required goal(8).

Discipline in the Muslim army meant that following the commander and emulating him was compulsory for the executive officers(9). It was never permitted, under any circumstances, for them to act on their whims, without thinking, with complete ignorance or rigidity(10). Rather they were bound by the spirit of obedience and doing that which was necessary and what they were able to in order to realize the goal(11).

The strength of discipline was clearly seen in the Battle of Hamrā al-Asad, when the order was given for the enemy to be pursued, before returning to Madina, [immediately] after the Battle of Uhud. At this time, despite the fact that the soldiers were tired and wounded as a result of war, and were mourning their martyrs, they still all obeyed the order and none of them contravened the command of facing the enemy(12). Similarly, the affection for the commander and belief in him made the army submit to [what were perceived as] the harsh and unpalatable conditions of the Treaty of Hudaybiyya(13).

An

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example of the belief in the evenhandedness of the commander in his orders was that he compelled ‘Abdullah ibn Rawāha to enforce discipline when he gave him instructions during the fight against the Romans in the Battle of Muta(1). The supreme commander would warn against lack of discipline which would lead to listlessness, defeat and hardship in the battlefield(2).

of martyrs in all the nine years under his command did not exceed three hundred and seventeen(1). This number is divided as follows:

Badr – 14 martyrs, Uhud – 70 martyrs, Bi’r Ma’unah(2) – 70 martyrs, al-Rajee’ – 10 martyrs, Khandaq – 6 martyrs, the Sariya of Muhammad ibn Maslama against the Bani Tha’laba – 10 martyrs, Bani al-Mustalaq – one martyr, Khaybar – 15 to 19 martyrs, the Sariya of Bashir ibn Sa’d al-Ansāri towards the Bani Murrah – 30 martyrs, the Sariya of Abi al-‘Awjā’ al-Sulami towards the Bani Saleem – 50 martyrs, Ka’b ibn ‘Umayr al-Ghifāri to the Bani Qudhā’ah – 15 martyrs, the Battle of Muta – 8 martyrs, the Conquest of Makkah – 2 martyrs, Hunayn – 4 martyrs and Tā’if – 12 martyrs.

The people, from the time they accepted Islām, displayed their courage in joining this army and would try to outdo each other(3). The Prophet (S) would not send the entire army against the enemy, rather he selected an appropriate number to [send in] each battle depending on the available resources and the number of soldiers in the enemy’s army(4). For example, he entered the battle against the Bani Saleem with a section of the forces(5) and the battle of Dhi Amr with a larger number of forces(6). In the Battle of Tabuk and some other battles, he brought the entire army to fight(7). Based on this, one of the most fundamental principles of war, meaning ‘economizing with the forces’, was always taken into

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consideration by the Prophet (S)(1).

The Prophet organized the troops in pyramidal forms in a single group and in groups of two, three and four depending on the number of tribes.

The single pyramidal contingent was led by Abu Wāqid al-Laythi and was made up from the tribes of Kanānah, Bani Hamzah, Bani Layth and Sa’d bin Bakr. The group of twos were made up of troops from the tribe of Ashja’ and the groups of three consisted of members from the tribe of Muzaynah while the groups of four were from the tribe of Juhaynah. This formation made it easier to attain the best speed and movement during battle(1). In the present day and age also, armed forces are organized into pyramidal groups of three and four(2).

The organization for battle was different from the arrangement of troops who were marched in front of Abu Sufyān before the Conquest of Makkah. The Holy Prophet (S) would try to give the command of an entire column to the leader of the tribe whose troops were present in that column(3). Whenever the numbers of the tribe did not match with the column, he would include other groups in it and would select a commander from a tribe that was present in that column(4).

related to war and he would take the opinion of its members about the following matters:

a) Declaring war on the enemy

b) Benefitting from the participation of the Ansār (in battle)

c) Centralization of the troops like in the Battle of Badr(1)

d) Remaining in Madina or coming out to face the Quraysh in the Battle of Uhud(2)

e) Digging the ditch in the Battle of Ahzāb

f) Creating a peace treaty with the Ghatfān for one third of the dates of Madina(3)

g) Whether to make peace or war in the expedition of Hudaybiyya(4)

h) The fixity and change of command in the Battle of Khaybar(5)

i) Whether to remain steadfast or move and launch an attack on the Roman empire

j) Return to Madina(6)

k) The battle between the Roman army and the troops of Zayd bin Hāritha where, when consulted, most of the commanders, and especially ‘Abdullah bin Rawāhah, the deputy commander, gave the opinion that they should fight against the Romans(7)

After studying the progress of the various battles it must be said that the situation would be different from place to place and in different military zones, and the study and deliberation about this issue can be considered clear evidence of the aptitude and

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soundness of opinion of the Holy Prophet (S) in these matters(1).

In this council, the Prophet (S) had one vote just like the other members and he would listen carefully to the opinions and views of the other members. For the Battle of Uhud(2), due to the fact that the majority had given the opinion that they should come out of Madina, even though he himself thought it would be more prudent to remain in the city, he supported the view of the council(3). This was the beginning of ‘democracy’, something that most of the countries in today’s world are calling for.

The Holy Prophet (S) would refrain from imposing his opinions and insisting on his views(4). Therefore, he would respect the commanders and sit with them and take their advice on various issues, just as he accepted the advice of Habāb bin Mundhir, Salmān al-Fārsi, Sa’d bin Mu’ādh, Sa’d bin ‘Ubādah and ‘Umar bin Khattāb in different situations in battle(5). He would always show tolerance and leniency to those who offered advice and would respect their views. He would never accuse them of being ignorant.

With his kind words and clear statements(6), he would assist them to remain free of pretence and flattery(7) and to acquire good characters and remain truthful(8). In the end, after listening to the advice, he would issue his orders. Because he was determined to carry out the decision of the council(9), nobody would dare to oppose the orders he gave(10). Members of the council were attributed with

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higher intelligence, prudent judgment and a greater awareness and understanding of military affairs, and were deemed trustworthy and reliable by the supreme commander(1).

One of the most important results of forming an administrative council was that the experience of war which was the cause of the Muslim army’s victory were revealed, the morals and characters of the participants were improved and strong bonds of friendship between them were formed. At the same time the full responsibility and accountability fell on their shoulders(2) and any matter that was put before the administrative council was discussed and debated by its members, the pros and cons were highlighted(3) and an appropriate conclusion was drawn(4).

The Holy Prophet (S) would request the views of the council in matters such as warfare(5), selecting a representative(6) and deputy(7) and other matters, and he would stress on the important role played by its members in leadership, because if they were suitable then the commander would also be good(8) otherwise the leadership will be corrupted and they will lead the commander to destruction and will act as hindrances and impediments in his path. The commanders who came after the passing away of the Holy Prophet (S) would also seek advice from the trustworthy leaders of the army(9). ‘Umar bin al-Khattāb gave more importance to this than anyone else(10), to such an extent that he would also listen to the advice of children.

the same time, for weakening the morale of the enemy and destroying it’, and was divided into various sections, each carrying out specific functions that were different from state to state, but overall it had a common spiritual goal that it tries to fulfill(1).

The Prophet (S) would continuously strengthen the morale of the army(2) using various means, the most important of which included: training and continuous guidance of the troops(3), putting the supreme commander (i.e. himself) at the same level as the soldiers(4), sharing in their sorrows(5) and happiness(6), defending the soldiers, steadfastness in battles(7), [fair] distribution of war booty(8), upgrading the weapons and equipment used by the troops in battle(9), caring for the families of those who were martyred(10), carrying out training for different battle strategies(11) so as to break down the wall of fear among the troops, and bringing them face to face with the different battle scenarios(12).

The Holy Prophet (S) also used various techniques to maintain this spirit, the most important among which were: expulsion of weak soldiers and those who have been defeated [spiritually] from among the troops(13), wiping out false rumours(14), hiding information that could weaken the spirit and resolve of the people(15), habituating the forces to adherence to strict discipline at all times(16) and creating a bond of mutual trust and friendship between the commander and his troops(17).

An example of the strength in spirit was the presence and participation of some fighters in the army to face the enemy without any weapons whatsoever(18), some

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would come to fight despite being young in age(1), and another group would be ready to face hoards of enemy soldiers despite their few numbers(2). Others would pull their horses behind them and would continue doing so throughout the battle(3). Yet others would make it their mission to assassinate those who had said or done anything against the supreme commander and who had ill will against the Islāmic revolution(4).

He (S) would instill faith and belief in the Muslim army in such a way that their spirit would never wane and would provide them the energy and strength to carry out all the missions that required self-sacrifice and struggle(5). The distinguishing feature that impelled the soldiers to strong spirituality(6) was the hope in the life hereafter and [the fact that] they were faced with two options which both led to success, either victory with honor or martyrdom and entrance into everlasting bliss(7). In this way, the father and son would keep their relationship aside and would strive to surpass one another in the hope of paradise(8).

In the Battle of Uhud, despite the rumour that the Prophet (S) had been killed, they continued to fight bravely. And this bravery was a testament to their strong faith and conviction(9). Some of the forces would [try to] outdo each other in fighting for the supreme commander and would even kill their own relatives in defense of their faith(10). Khubayb bin. ‘Uday when forced to return to his previous faith preferred death(11). Therefore the spirit

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in the Muslim army was aimed at protecting the faith and it was one of the most important goals of the Prophet (S) to strengthen this very spirit.

The supreme commander would also, on the other side try to weaken the spirit and resolve of the enemy, causing them to waver, and instill fear and terror in their hearts(1) to such an extent that they were not capable of coming out to fight against him. The most important ways in which he accomplished this included: displaying their strength and might(2), using intelligence agents, taking precaution in employing counter-intelligence measures(3) and scrutinizing them(4), arresting enemy spies(5), carrying out attacks using offensive strategies(6) especially in the battles of Bani Quraydha and Khaybar and some of the Sariya missions like the Sariya of Muhammad bin Maslamah against the Bani Bakr, and that of ‘Amr bin ‘Aās against the Qudhā’ah, all of which were missions in which swift attacks were used. This was similarly the case, the attacks against the tribe of Bani Mahārib and Bani Tha’labah in the Battle of Shāt al-Ruqā’.

Another way was by propagation of the renown and reputation of the leadership and bravery of Muslim army(7), especially in the battle against the Bani Nadhir which was the cause of the Jews destroying their homes and strongholds by their own hands. In the battle against the Bani Lihyān, when the enemy heard that the Holy Prophet (S) had set out [with his army] to wage war against them, they fled, as did

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the Banu Sa’d when they got the information that ‘Ali bin Abi Tālib (‘a) had started marching towards them. Similarly, being quick in defense and repulsion of any incursion by enemy forces(1), especially in the Battle of Badr al-Kubrā and al-Ghābah, was another of the Prophet’s tactics for weakening the resolve of the enemy.

The Holy Prophet (S) would awaken and enliven the spirit of the troops before the commencement of battle in order to attain the highest level of commitment and zeal(2) and would always try to preserve this throughout the war while removing anything that could cause a weakening in their spirits(3). Whenever the soldiers started feeling disheartened, the Prophet (S) would strive to lift their spirits. This can be seen in the Battle of Ahzāb when the Bani Quraydha broke their covenant with the Muslims, where after the siege was taking its toll, he utilized clever trickery to cause disharmony in the ranks of the enemy’s army thereby lifting the spirits of his own troops(4).

The spirit and zeal of the Muslim fighters would increase and decrease in accordance with the varying situations in every battle, but on the whole, the Muslim army would be in high spirits until the final stages of the battles, and in order to achieve victory, they would remain steadfast and ready to attack(5), even in situations where they had faced shocking events, the army would come out with their heads held high and would carry through till the end. The Battles of Uhud

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and Khandaq were two examples of this, because the Prophet (S) lifted the spirits of the army after the Battle of Uhud by initiating the Battle of Hamrā al-Asad and during the Battle of Khandaq by causing disharmony and division in the ranks of the enemy. As a result, the confederates lost the victory and had to turn back humiliated.

over the borders of the neighboring state (i.e. Rome)(1), just as he had done in the Battle of Dumat al-Jundal when he sent ‘Abd al-Rahmān ibn ‘Auf to that area to gain the friendship of the Bani Kalb – a tribe that lived in on the border area – and also in the case of the peace treaty with Akeedar and others.

The Prophet (S) would send troops to the sensitive areas(2) and would himself meet with the traders and travelers(3) and would get information from them and from those who lived there(4).

Interrogating the prisoners(5), settling intelligence gathering forces in enemy territory(6), studying their movements and transferring them at the appropriate time, were all other methods for acquiring intelligence. The Prophet (S) would never be heedless of any means of obtaining information about the enemy, and at times he would personally undertake to find out the latest information about them(7). The goal of this was to achieve victory and gain accurate information.

One of the examples of success in the Holy Prophet’s information gathering was that he (S) would keep all the plans secret(8) like in the case with the Sariya of ‘Abdullah bin Jahash(9) and the Conquest of Makkah and more than this, even the intelligence officers and those charged with information gathering were unaware about some of these plans(10). Just as in the Sariya of Abi Qatādah ibn Rabi’ al-Ansāri to the ‘Batn Adham’ he tried as much as possible to carry out this mission in total secret(11), so he

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made only a few of his topmost commanders privy to the detailed planning of the mission(1). In the Battle of Uhud, he kept the acquired information hidden from his own uncle ‘Abbās and he did the same thing during the Conquest of Makkah.

The supreme commander prepared the intelligence outfit and personnel very well(2) and chose the most suitable people for such missions(3) as in the Battle of Badr where he sent Talha bin ‘Abdillah and Sa’eed ibn Zayd to gather information from the trading caravan of the Quraysh; Ibn ‘Amr al-Jahni and ‘Uday bin Abi al-Za’bā’ to gather information from the heart of the enemy’s camp; ‘Ali bin Abi Tālib (‘a) and Sa’d bin Abi Waqqās to find out about the number of enemy soldiers and Habbāb ibn Mundhir to get information about their movements and the number of reinforcements.

The Prophet (S) was fully aware of all issues pertaining to the organization and strategies of the enemy, their goal, weapons, commanders and plans(4). He obtained this detailed information by sending a Sariya mission under the command of ‘Abdullah bin Anees to assassinate Sufyān bin Khālid al-Hadhali(5) and other leaders of the Quraysh in the Battle of Badr and also displayed them (i.e. what he had acquired from the enemy) in front of Abu Sufyān during the Conquest of Makkah.

When intelligence information was sent to the Holy Prophet (S), he would study and scrutinize it very carefully and would coordinate it with the reality of the current situations in the battle(6).

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He showed this in the Battles of Badr and Uhud and also in the Battle of Ahzāb when the Bani Quraydha broke their allegiance and in the Conquest of Makkah when he gave permission to acquire information about the capabilities of the enemy, especially [about] their weapons etc.

He made a lot of effort to ensure that the intelligence division was highly active and dynamic and would always cooperate with the commander and those in charge(1). For example in the Battle of Badr and the Conquest of Makkah, he used the intelligence to acquire every minor detail including the number of those animals slaughtered [for food](2) and when he sent secret missions, like the Sariya of Hamzah ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, he did the exact same thing.

The Noble Prophet (S) would always give importance to acquiring information at all times, whether before, during or after battle, like in the Conquest of Makkah, and in all situations, however difficult they may be(3), as in the Battle of Ahzāb where he ordered Hudhayfah bin al-Yamān to go and gather intelligence [about the enemy] in cold weather and harsh conditions.

The Prophet (S) insisted that intelligence gathering be done from near and without keeping a distance from the enemy(4), like in the Battle of Uhud when he sent Anas and Munis(5) to Dhu Hulayfah, the place where the Quraysh had encamped and ordered them to join the enemy’s camp and remain with them. Then, when they arrived at Aqd, near Uhud, he sent Habbāb bin Mundhir

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and in this way he would use intelligence agents to transfer intelligence and information about the enemy and order them to penetrate within the enemy ranks and at the same time he would station guards and his intelligence agents at the northern borders of the enemy.

The intelligence activities that were carried out by the Holy Prophet (S) were not only for obtaining information about the enemy, but also to negate any intelligence they may have acquired about him, and this was one of the most imperative steps he took which was most necessary and of the utmost importance(1). He (S) would do this in the following ways:

Through ‘covert operations’(2) while marching through routes that are filled with vegetation and trees in Madina; namely al-Manqā, al-Khubayth, Dhi Qasr, al-Kutayb and Dhi Amr, that took place in the Battle of Dhi Amr (also known as Ghatfān). In the two battles of Dhi al-‘Asheerah and Dumat al-Jundal the cover of darkness in the night was also benefitted from(3). The Prophet (S) would advise the secret missions to take advantage of the darkness of night time, so they would mostly march at night, as is seen in the Sariya of Muhammad bin Maslamah against the Bani Bakr and that of Zayd ibn Hāritha against the tribe of Judhām and the mission of ‘Abd al-Rahmān bin ‘Auf against Dumat al-Jundal.

Speed and swiftness in movement, as was seen in the Battle of Dumat al-Jundal(4).

Using shortcuts in order to arrive at the enemy’s camp faster as in

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the Battle of Bani Lihyān and the commanders who were sent in the Sariya of ‘Akāshah bin Muhsin to fight against the Bani Asad, and (the mission of) Qutbah ibn ‘Aāmir against the Khat’am.

Ordering that bells should be removed from around the necks of camels(1) so that the forces could move unnoticed as in the example of the Battle of Muta and the Conquest of Makkah(2).

Concealing the state of readiness and the initial mobilization of forces(3), as was the case in the battles of Bani Saleem, Dhi Amr, Dhāt al-Ruqā’ and Bani Lihyān, and the Sariya of Abi Qatāda bin Rab’i al-Ansāri towards the Batn Adham.

Using secret codes and identification(4) as was employed in the Battle of Badr and the Sariya of Usāma bin Zayd from the commander of the group.

Instructions to ensure that no noise was to be made that could alert the enemy of the approaching army(5), like in the Battle of Khaybar where one of the soldiers was prevented from going ahead of the army and advancing alone.

Preventing the shining of weapons during the march and not passing in front of the inhabitants of the area(6), just as he did in the Battle of Badr, Bani Saleem and the Sariya missions of ‘Abdullah bin Jahash and ‘Ali ibn Abi Tālib (‘a) against the Bani Sa’d.

Ordering the army to march through uninhabited areas(7) like the desert routes which were taken by the supreme commander in the battles of Bani Saleem and Bahrān and [the Sariya of] ‘Amr ibn

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‘Aās in the fight against the Bani Qudhā’ah.

Issuing the command that secrets should be safeguarded and information about the battle-plan should be kept hidden(1), like in the Conquest of Makkah and the Sariya missions of ‘Abdullah ibn Jahash, Abi Qatāda and others.

Diverting the enemy from the targets of attacks. This was carried out in various ways which would put the enemy in doubt and misguidance until they would assume that the Holy Prophet (S) is not marching against them(2). This is precisely what happened in the battles of Bani Lihyān and Dumat al-Jundal and also took the inhabitants on Makkah and their leaders by surprise in the Conquest of Makkah as they were unsure if Muhammad (S) was marching towards Najd, Hawāzin or another region, therefore they were completely baffled and the matter was unclear to them.

Arresting the spies and intelligence agents of the enemy and preventing them from sending information(3) as can be pointed out in the battles of Badr, Dumat al-Jundal and Bani al-Mustalaq. During the Conquest of Makkah, one of the spies of the Hawāzin was arrested before entry into Makkah and in the Battle of Khaybar, one of the bold spies of the enemy who had acquired a lot of intelligence was captured(4).

The goals and objectives in terms of what the Holy Prophet (S) sought to learn about and concentrated on were:

enemies, like ‘Abbās ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib(1), or by means of trickery(2) and deception(3). In the battles of Badr and Bani Lihyān, he kept the battle-plan, the time and the place secret and in the Battle of Khaybar, he deceived the tribe of Ghatfān in such a way that they returned back from whence they had come. In the battles of Uhud, Dhāt al-Ruqā’ and Khandaq, he learnt of the enemy’s goals by eavesdropping on the conversations of the [enemy] commanders and soldiers(4). Sometimes information was gotten from the way the enemy conducted its exercises and the activities that is carried out openly(5), or through allied tribes such as the Bani Dhumrah and Bani Mudlij. In the Battle of Dhāt al-Ruqā’ he got information from members of the Najd tribe and in the Battle of Tabuk he got information from the Mudhar tribe.

of Bani al-Mustalaq and Busr ibn Sufyān in the Battle of Hudaybiyya.

using various intelligence apparatuses(1) and would also personally get involved in this(2) like in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khaybar and Khandaq. The most important ways that the Holy Prophet (S) used to obtain this information was using watchmen and eavesdroppers.

1. Watchmen: The lookout would be appointed in the intelligence gathering missions(3). During this, they would keep watch over the enemy’s movements inside and outside the points of interest(4) as well as possible areas in two tactical and strategic levels. Some of the sentries(5) or watchmen would keep an eye on the routes taken by the enemy’s caravans(6), just as was the case when one of the troops was posted at Nakhbār in order to keep an eye over the activities and movements of the enemy, or in the Sariya of Zayd bin Hāritha where they performed the duty of a lookout when he was encamped at ‘Ayyis(7). These forces would stand in a place from where they could carry out their duties as watchmen and spies in an effective manner(8).

In every situation, one sentry or spy was posted in a secret location, hidden from the eyes of the enemy(9) and would take advantage of his senses of sight and hearing(10). No amount of hardship, tribulation or affliction would prevent him from carrying out his duties(11). Anees ibn Abi Murthad al-Ghanawi who was the sentry appointed in the Battle of Hunayn, remained steadfast despite all the hardships that he had to face. He also remained

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firm in the Sariya of Ghālib ibn ‘Abdullah al-Laythi despite having been shot and injured by an arrow.

2. Eavesdroppers: This was a method that the Holy Prophet (S) used during the night or in situations where visibility was low or when the weather was bad. In such cases, the intelligence agents and eavesdroppers would move in complete secret until they arrived at the enemy’s camp. They would eavesdrop on their conversations and then return and inform the Muslim army of what they had heard(1). This is exactly what one of the members of a Sariya mission did for the Bani al-Maluh. Hudhayfa ibn al-Yamān also used eavesdropping against Abu Sufyān, the commander of the army of confederates.

What can be seen is that the responsibility of information gathering and eavesdropping needed to be given to men who had certain attributes and qualities, from bodily strength and courage to freedom from certain sicknesses such as coughing, being hard of hearing etc. that could prevent in their successfully carrying out the missions(2).

The types of information that the Prophet (S) sought to obtain were:

1. General information, for which he would employ normal troops to gather the information such as the vanguard(3), patrols(4), guides(5), locals(6) etc.

2. Urgent information, for which the special military patrols would be brought in(7). Just as in the battles of Badr, Dumat al-Jundal, Bani al-Mustalaq and the Conquest of Makkah, and the Sariya of ‘Akashah ibn

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Muhsin against the Bani Asad, that of Zayd bin Hāritha and other similar missions.

Sometimes this action would be carried out by those who were behind enemy lines as in the Battle of Uhud. The commander would turn to this when he did not have enough information about the enemy(1), so he would capture some prisoners and would obtain the information from them(2).

Reconnaissance would be carried out according to the different stages, meaning the Prophet (S) would conduct reconnaissance at the tactical level to make preparations for battle and during battle(3) when the field of operation for the intelligence agents was limited to the front lines of the enemy, however reconnaissance at the strategic level was carried out by his forces deep within the enemy territory and among the enemies.

Additionally, in order to protect the troops during movement and encampment, he would post his intelligence patrols for reconnaissance in front and on the sides of the army(4), as he had done when marching from Madina to Badr and from Madina towards Uhud and from Makkah towards the valley of Hunayn.

In the same way, he (S) would carry out reconnaissance of the territories and areas where the troops could camp with relative ease and their surrounding areas(5), like in the battles of Badr, Uhud and Khaybar and would select those people to keep watch whose duties among other things, was to prevent the enemy from finding out their numbers, to protect their base from the approaching enemy, protecting the commander and the

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troops from being taken by surprise and giving warning about the nearing enemy while at the same time not giving any opportunity to enemy spies and saboteurs(1).

This guarding and protection was either stationary(2), which would protect in sensitive and dangerous areas, or mobile(3), which would offer protection in some areas that were considered to be of special importance militarily and during battle; and normally the former type would require fewer numbers of troops.

before the start of the war like in the Battle of Tabuk.

3. Choosing the specific location(1): For each operation, the area where the forces would remain and from which they would not cross would be specified, as in the Sariya of ‘Abdullah ibn Jahash towards Nakhlah and like the Battle of Dhi Amr towards the place where this tribe had settled and also in the ‘conquest’, towards Makkah.

4. Ways of reaching the goal(2): It was necessary for the army to cross over certain points, lands and known areas, like in the battles of Badr, Saleem, Hudaybiyya and Khaybar.

5. Direction(3): The Muslim army would march towards the places where the enemy had been mobilized or towards the areas where the supreme commander had specified for them, like in the Sariya of Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib towards the land of the Juhaynah, Abi Qatāda ibn Rab’i al-Ansāri towards Batn Adham and Kurz ibn Jābir Fahri towards the area where he could join the group of ‘Ikl and ‘Urayna, and also in the Battle of Bani Quraydha to the place where the Jews were living.

6. Locating the most appropriate place to set camp(4): The most appropriate place for the army to set camp and create a base, where the required amenities were close by and from where administration and medical care could be given, was ascertained. Like in the battles of Badr, Uhud

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and Khaybar.

7. Guarding and protection(1): The number of guards, their commander, their orders, their position and all related issues were specified.

8. Secret code and identification(2): In order to identify the forces of the (Muslim) army, secret codes were used, which were changed from battle to battle and from mission to mission, as was done in the battles of Badr and Khandaq and the Sariya missions of Abu Bakr against the Bani Kilāb and of Usāma bin Zayd towards the Abnā.

9. Changing the flag-bearer(3): The flag-bearer would be appointed by the supreme commander and would be changed from battle to battle. The responsibility of carrying the flag was given to one of the soldiers who was known for his trustworthiness and reliability.

10. Commanding the rear(4): For the rear of the army, a specific commander was appointed who was in charge of all the administrative matters [of that portion of the army]. Some of these commanders would always be given this responsibility [in every battle].

11. Command of Sariya missions(5): For separate and independent intelligence gathering or military missions, a leader was chosen over a group of forces.

12. Special conditions(6): These special conditions called for special measures, like giving an immediate response to the enemy in the Battle of Dhāt al-Suwayq and other battles, carrying out attacks and assaults like in the battles of Bahrān and Bani Lihyān, the conducting of suicide missions by ‘Umayr

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ibn ‘Uday bin Kharshah in order to assassinate ‘Asmā’, by Sālim ibn ‘Umayr in order to kill Abi ‘Akf, by Muhammad ibn Maslamah in order to kill Abi Ashraf and by ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Ateek to assassinate Salām ibn Abi al-Haqeeq.

13. Securing different requirements in the battlefield(1): like securing intelligence information and administrative requirements in the battles of Badr, Khandaq and Tabuk.

14. Increasing the zeal(2): When the orders would be issued, effort would be made to ensure that the spirit and zeal of the soldiers should be lifted while at the same time disheartening the enemy. Like the orders that were issued in the battles of Badr and Uhud.

15. Insisting on the steadfastness of the troops(3): This can be clearly seen from the words of the supreme commander in all the battles.

16. Seek recourse in patience(4): Patience is the prerequisite of victory and many a group consisting of few individuals has been led to victory over a large army of soldiers through patience.

17. Sacrificing one’s wealth and life(5): These are the two prime ingredients of volitional warfare and for this reason, the Holy Prophet (S) put a lot of importance on these two factors in all his orders to the troops.

This was the summary of the orders given and we will now proceed to explain each one in detail:

from the west and east for the Quraysh and the Jews of Khaybar.

Securing freedom for the propagation and spread of Islām(1) as was the case in the Sariya of Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Khālid ibn Walid against the Bani Hārith and also that of ‘Ali ibn Abi Tālib (‘a) against the Bani Mudhjah.

Displaying the strength and might of the Muslim army(2) as in the battles of Hamrā al-Asad, Hudaybiyya and Muta and that which was done against the Romans.

Instilling fear and terror in the hearts of those who allied themselves with the enemies of Islām or were preparing to do so(3).

Enacting peace treaties with neighboring tribes(4): like the Bani Dhumrah, Bani Juhaynah and Bani Mudlij as well as the treaty will Bani Kalb; meaning those who had come to fight in Dumat al-Jundal, Tabir and the outskirts of Shām. This was done in order to secure the success of the military operations.

Concentrating on the points and areas of tactical and strategic importance(5) like the areas around the coast and towards the east after the Battle of Badr against the Bani Saleem who were a threat to the revolution and also towards the north in order to survey the area of Dumat al-Jundal and invading upon the enemy who were waiting for opportunity or had already begun working against the Muslim army(6), like the Jews and the Romans.

Assassinating those who had evil intentions against the supreme commander, the army troops, the caretakers of the towns or the Islāmic revolution in

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general(1).

Punishing the Jews of Bani Qaynuqā’(2) because they broke their allegiance and their covenant for their own benefit, and similarly the Bani Nadhir(3), Bani Quraydha(4) and the inhabitants of Khaybar(5). The Prophet (S) destroyed the pact of these four groups(6) with each other as well as their pact with the enemy Arab tribes(7).

Giving a strong reaction against Abu Sufyān and his forces: this was when they had the intention to invade Madina and ransack it in the Battle of Dhāt al-Suwayq(8).

Dealing with the two tribes of Bani Saleem and Bani Ghatfān because they had declared their open enmity against Islām(9).

Preventing other tribes from attacking Madina, such as the tribes of Bani Tha’labah and Muhārib and others(10).

Teaching and training the children of the Ummah and purifying their hearts from filth, doubts and falsehoods.(11)

Creating fear against Rome and Persia(12): The Prophet (S) made it his general policy in dealing with these two states and preparing for war with them before they launched an attack on the Muslim lands(13) or gain control over the northern borders.

Taking the battle to the enemy territory(14): The Prophet (S) would only fight against the enemy outside Madina and the moment he received information that the enemy intended to attack Madina, he would launch a pre-emptive strike on them before they could start marching from their own lands. This happened in many of the battles like Bani Saleem, Dhi Amr and Bahrān against the Arab tribes and in Muta and Tabuk against the Romans.

Taking revenge and punishing those

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who killed innocents(1): As was the case in the Sariya of Kurz ibn Jābir Fahri in order to teach the ‘Ikl and ‘Urayna a lesson. Or in order to punish those who were acting against the rules and regulations of the leader and ruler(2), like the opposition of the Jews of Bani Quraydha to the agreements and conditions of the homeland pact.

Realizing peace(3): This was another objective. An example of this was the Battle of Hudaybiyya against the Quraysh and the Sariya of ‘Abd al-Rahmān ibn ‘Auf against the Bani Kalb.

Coming to the aid of the oppressed(4): as was the case in the Battle of Dumat al-Jundal which took place on the orders and instructions of the supreme commander.

Belief in oneness and unity(5): This was done by destroying the idols that were adorned and worshipped by the Arabs. An example was the Sariya of Khālid bin Walid in order to destroy the idol ‘Uzzā’, that of ‘Amr bin ‘Aās to destroy the idol Siwā’, of Sa’d ibn Zayd al-Ashal to destroy the idol Manāt, Tufayl ibn ‘Amr to destroy the idol Dhil Kiflayn and ‘Ali ibn Abi Tālib (‘a) to destroy the idol al-Filis and all the idols of the Ka’bah.

Collecting taxes from the tribes that had accepted Islām(6).

and secondary objectives(1), just as the primary objective of the Battle of Dumat al-Jundal was crushing the tribes of that area who were forcing the traders and travelers to pay a toll and the secondary objective was to instill fear in the hearts of the Romans.

The primary objective in the Battle of Khaybar was also to bring down Khaybar and deal with its inhabitants while the secondary objective was to prevent the Arab tribes from allying themselves to the Jews and preparation for war against the Quraysh in Makkah and those enemies who were deemed more dangerous(2).

He (S) also planned ‘offensive’ and ‘defensive’ operations(3) and would always use assaults and offense in every battle(4). He made this something that was ingrained in the minds and hearts of the soldiers(5). He would specify different stages of battle(6), meaning he would not just attack the enemy at one go, rather he would launch assaults on them at different times. If the enemy did not launch an all-out attack against him(7), he would launch successive and consecutive attacks on them and would fight each one independently while at the same time preventing others from joining forces with the enemy.

This is precisely what he did in his battle with the Jews. He started with the Bani Qaynuqā’ and ended with Khaybar. He employed the same tactic against the Arab tribes of Bani Tha’labah and Ghatfān in the Battle of Dhi Amr, Bani Saleem in the Battle of Bahrān and Bani al-Mustalaq in the Battle

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of Bani al-Mustalaq and others.

The Prophet (S) would command the troops using ‘new techniques’(1) of warfare, including centralization of command, organizing the ranks, laying siege, mobile defense, pre-emptive, offensive and psychological warfare.

The Prophet’s enemies would always try to prevent him from attaining his goals, but they were not successful and he (S) was steadfast in guarding his goal(1). The supreme commander would also require this from his commanders.

For example, he sent ‘Ali ibn Abi Tālib (‘a)(2) to destroy the idol of the tribe of Tā’i(3) and also sent him in the second phase to spread Islām among the tribes of Yemen(4). ‘Ali (‘a) arrived in their land. The tribes rose up in opposition to him, but he fought them and continued his important mission until he was able to secure his goal(5). However, Khālid bin Walid(6) did not remain steadfast in his mission to invite the Bani Judhayma to Islām(7) and diverted from his goal. Despite not having been ordered to kill them, he slaughtered some of the men of the said tribe(8).

battlefield with complete courage. In one of the battles, a soldier who had a date in his mouth spit it out(1), another threw away his armor and fought courageously(2). The youth would keenly prepare for battle(3) and as a result, with a small force they were able to gain victory over large hoards.

after it had fallen(1), and it would not be long before the dispersed army would again assemble and prepare to fight.

intended goals(1). It was required of the soldiers that they should quickly assemble at the call (of the supreme commander) with their weapons, armor and means of transport ready to launch counter-attacks(2). It is obvious that the Muslim army was prepared for battle with Kurz ibn Jābir Fahri when Madina was attacked and the strong response of the army when the supreme commander declared war against the Bani Quraydha(3), therefore they were able to get prepared for battle within a short period of time.

The preparation included wearing armor, sharpening swords, carrying spears and getting the means of transport ready. After assembly, all the columns would move towards the enemy and would in the end come together. The Holy Prophet (S) was the first person who prepared for battle in this war (against the Bani Quraydha)(4).

In the Battle of al-Ghābah(5), the soldiers quickly became ready with their battle gear, weapons and mounted their horses and joined ‘Ayniyyah ibn al-Hisn(6). The Muslim army displayed its mobilization and readiness in the Sariya of Usāma ibn Zayd(7). At this time three thousand troops who were fully equipped(8) came together on the orders of mobilization and assembled in one day(9), something that is not seen even in today’s armies, because mobilizing such a large force cannot be done in less than three days. In reality, the zeal for war and martyrdom, discipline, sufficient training and constant preparedness for battle were the necessary pre-requisites for this higher level of readiness.

a battle-plan and making the necessary preparations for the armed forces, mobilizing the human, material, psychological and spiritual resources for battle while at the same time being economically and materially prepared for it(1). The Noble Prophet (S) would mobilize the people in groups or all together(2) depending on the available resources and the type of enemy.

This is why he conducted a general mobilization(3) during the battles of the conquest and Tabuk, while in the Battle of Badr, he only ordered a partial mobilization(4). In most of the wars and battles, this would take place in secret(5) but sometimes, as in the case of the Battle of Tabuk, it was conducted openly.

The armed forces would thus be prepared. When the order of mobilization reached the other Muslim tribes, they would all be called to prepare for battle(6). Once the troops were organized, they would be ready for a new mission(7); as had happened in the Conquest of Makkah and the Battle of Hunayn. The battle gear and weapons(8) were taken on loan from Safwān ibn Umayya before the battle and some more was bought to make it more complete, and the people would also assist in the preparation out of their fervor by contributing what was required, and they would be encouraged to do so(9).

The spirit among them would be strengthened(10) and the faith in the righteousness of the battle that they are fighting would be ignited in them(11), the love for battle and combat(12) became intensified(13), and when it was

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announced that certain equipment was required, it would be collected and sent to fight the battle against the enemy(1). It was certain that the people would all answer the call to mobilize and none of them ever turned away(2), and they would wear their battle armor in the quickest time possible(3). In some of the battles, the speed of mobilization and preparation of the army was such that it was done in less than 24 hours(4). The distinguishing feature of the mobilization of the Muslim army was that the forces would try to outdo each other in obedience (to the Prophet) and would act with complete love and devotion(5).

in the future. Like what was done to the Bani Quraydha after they broke their pact and mobilized themselves to fight against the Muslims in the Battle of Ahzāb, and as a result they were all killed, and also what transpired against Abu Sufyān, the commander of the enemy forces, when he tried to threaten the Muslims and the response to his threat was much stronger and more forceful.

Immediate counter-measures(1): This would take place immediately and swiftly after the enemy’s incursion and would be forceful and strong, to such an extent that it would weaken the enemy’s base and inflict severe loss and casualties on them; like in the battles of Badr al-Awwal and al-Ghābah.

carried out in Jaraf. The places of rest for the forces in the daytime and nighttime(1) and the places where the army should concentrate were also considered by him (S) as in the battles of Badr and Tabuk(2). He (S) would select the shortest route to arrive at the goal and would keep it hidden from the view of the enemy(3). At the same time, he would try as much as possible to choose routes that had wells and plenty of water supply throughout(4).

The supreme commander would give the following instructions to the army when they set out:

To be careful not to make noise and avoid anything that would draw the attention of the enemy, like the bells worn around the necks of camels.

Not to use shiny and glittery tools.

Staying behind or moving ahead of the forces(5).

Moving during the night in order to remain hidden from the enemy(6).

Taking routes that would not bring them directly face to face with the enemy(7), like in the Sariya of ‘Abdullah ibn Jahash and the Conquest of Makkah.

Moving swiftly(8) in order to remain one step ahead of the enemy and arriving at the place of battle at the appropriate time.

At the same time, the movement of the forces would be such that a group of information gathering patrols would be kept at a distance in order to keep watch.(9) During this march, the forces were either on foot or on riding on camels(10).

the following matters: assemble the forces(1), organize them(2), review them(3), carry out a selection of some soldiers and ask others to return(4), prepare the battle gear, weapons(5), conduct a final check(6), arrange the necessary food and water provisions(7), prepare (the soldiers) physically and mentally(8), make the battle-plan by taking all the possibilities and different battle scenarios into consideration(9), select and announcing his deputy in Madina(10), review the flags and banners and select those who will carry them(11), determine the tribes who will participate in the battle(12) and review the means of transport to be used by the forces(13).

it hard to reach for enemy troops(1).

Facing the direction which would cause the sun to be behind their own forces(2); like in the Battle of Badr and other battles.

For the troops to be in front of a mountain or any other natural fortress(3); as in the Battle of Uhud.

Keeping the base camp near sources of water and some major highways(4).

Plentitude of grass and grazing ground in the area(5).

Making sure the area is suitable medically and hygienically(6).

Ensuring the ground is hard and with areas where the battle can be fought(7).

Being far away from the reach of enemy arrows(8); as in the battles of Bani Nadhir, Bani Quraydha and Khaybar.

Having the possibility of moving away in case there are no reinforcements(9).

The ability to cut off the enemy supply routes and stopping them from obtaining it (supplies)(10).

The possibility of securing the necessary cover and camouflage(11).

Being able to fully control their own forces(12).

Ease of movement in order to keep watch over the enemy and spy on them(13).

In this area, the Prophet (S) placed the command post at an elevated position, so that it would be possible for him to have complete control and ability to supervise the war(14). He (S) would arrange the forces in ranks(15) according to their battle instructions(16); like the cavalry, the infantry, the special forces, the vanguard, the archers, the rear and others.

The measures that were taken in the area when the base camp was set up included: review and assessment(17); inspection of the troops(18); assembling the troops and their

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accouterments(1); organizing the ranks(2); specifying the battle instructions(3), and the necessary guarding and protection especially of the command post(4); appointing the commanders of the ranks and contingents(5) including those responsible for the command post and its protection; preparing the troops psychologically and spiritually(6); encouraging them to fight(7); specifying the secret code words for identification(8); issuing the command to start the war(9); the mode of co-operation(10) between the forces as was done in the Battle of Badr - between the units like in the Sariya of Tufayl ibn ‘Amr, between the commanders who marched towards Tā’if after the Battle of Hunayn and between the units and contingents, as in the troops who entered Makkah during the Conquest of Makkah; conducting training exercises on the principles of archery(11), attack or the techniques that the soldiers should use when they come face to face with the enemy(12); specifying the time and place for war(13) which would be before the enemy was well prepared and in the hours of twilight. Aside from these issues, in the command post the battle with the enemy would also be supervised(14).

trustworthiness and their ability to keep secrets, nobody was aware what the intention and goal of the Holy Prophet (S) was(1).

The Holy Prophet (S) would then issue brief instructions for the commander of the operations(2) and would complete his orders to the commanders either by letter or verbally(3). He (S) would also specify the time it should take for the mission to be conducted(4) and the direction and ways by which they should divert the enemy(5). He would keep the missions and preparations for some of the battles hidden and would not do them openly(6). Aside from this, he would give instructions that the secrets should be kept hidden and the goal should not be announced until the appropriate time(7).

He would disperse spies and intelligence agents(8), arrest enemy spies in order to prevent them from sending information to the enemy(9), blockade the routes used by the enemy spies so that they could not take information back to the enemy base(10), and would actually not permit any of these forces from entering or exiting the said area(11). In order that the intelligence apparatus may function even better, the Holy Prophet (S) would personally oversee these operations and would stress on their importance.

assess the battle readiness in all the ranks and would constantly seek information and updates about the enemy and his own forces in the battlefield(1) and was completely aware of all the other military and political conditions(2). As a result, his orders would only be issued after being supported by strong intelligence and various other means of affirming their prudence and correctness(3).

Other matters that were examined and looked into by the Holy Prophet (S) included:

With regards to the enemy: their strength, assembly, preparation and weaponry(4).

With regards to the friend: Furnishing complete battle gear and military equipment and making them equally trained and motivated(5).

With regards to the land: ensuring that it is suitable for setting up camp and carrying out military operations(6).

and attack’ was one of the military strategies of the Holy Prophet (S) that he would implement against the enemy. He (S) employed a state of constant offense and would attack the enemy continuously, and as a result he left them with no choice but to do things that would make their goals and intentions clear(1). The Prophet’s goal in invading and attacking was displaying the strength and might of the Muslim army(2), gaining the upper hand over the enemy(3) and continuously encountering them (and countering their intended attacks)(4).

The Sariya and military missions that he (S) would send was not for anything but invasion and attack(5), the Battle of Hamrā’ al-Asad(6) was only a show of strength and the Battle of Dumat al-Jundal(7) was only fought to get information, learn about and test the strength and capability of the Roman army. The Muslim army fought Badr al-Aākhar(8) only in order to gain the upper hand over the enemy and it was then that Abu Sufyān turned back on his promise of war and tried to give excuses (for not fighting)(9). However, the Prophet (S) had decided to launch an attack and said: ‘I swear by He in whose hand my life is, even if nobody accompanies me, I will come out to fight(10).’

Noble Prophet (S) used various methods to gain information in order to create fear in the enemy(1). In the battles of Hamrā’ al-Asad, Khandaq and the Conquest, by burning the dry date palms and plantations of the enemy(2), he created a large fire(3) and paraded the large number of troops and weapons(4) he had in front of the enemy commander i.e. Abu Sufyān, before entering Makkah.

Before the Battle of Badr, while performing the Hajj al-Tamatu’, he slaughtered the camel that was linked to Abu Jahl(5). During the Conquest, he performed the Sa’ee between Safā and Marwa quickly(6), with his followers carrying sheathed swords(7), he performed the circumambulation while riding on a camel(8). Then he turned his cloak on the side and left his right arm open(9), ordering the whole army to do just as he had done(10). He praised those of them who displayed their strength to the enemy(11). These tactics were quite successful and assisted in destroying the resistance of the enemy, to such an extent that he had made them certain that they would by no means be capable to come face to face with the Muslim army(12).

response he would commence the war; like in the Sariya of ‘Abd al-Rahmān ibn ‘Awf and Khālid bin Walid to Dumat al-Jundal and against the Bani al-Hārith.

Nullification and breaking of pacts(1): When the enemies would break their peace pacts, the Prophet (S) would send some people to warn them and remind them of their treachery and betrayal; just as he had done in the ‘four battles’ against the Jews.

The Holy Prophet (S) would fight three types of battles. One was the battle fought without any warning or notice(2), like the battles that he fought against the hostile Arab tribes or the Quraysh and external foes. In these cases, he would launch surprise attacks on these groups in their own territories. Another type was preceded by forewarning(3), so he would mostly give the enemy an option and try to reason with them kindly as he wanted all the people to accept Islām.

However, nullifying the pact(4) was dealt with in a different way when it came to the Jews who lived in Madina and its outskirts. The Prophet (S) created a pact of defense with them as ‘citizens’ and had acknowledged them as fellow compatriots. Despite this they broke their pact and turned into a center for plotting and ambush (against the Muslims). He (S) also sent a representative(5) to the Bani Qaynuqā’(6) and the Bani Nadhir(7) and gave them a notice that they should leave their lands in ten days(8), but they did not pay any attention to the warning reacted

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with disdain(1). The Prophet (S) was left with no option but to wage war against them.

come forward(1). These combatants would use various weapons including swords. They would either be on foot or horseback and would be in full armor and would move to fight each other in single one-on-one combat(2). Each one of them would kill one or more of his opponents(3). It is then that the other soldiers rush in and the full scale battle starts with complete intensity(4).

In the Battle of Badr, three fighters from the Muslim army stood to face three soldiers from the polytheists and ended up (successfully) killing their opponents.(5) In the Battle of Uhud, one person from the Muslims went to face one person (from the polytheists) and caused him to fall to the ground by one strike of the sword(6). This (one-on-one) combat would be observed by the supreme commander and the soldiers of both sides(7). So if they would kill their opponents, the spirit and courage of the troops would be strengthened while weakness and a sense of defeat would prevail over the enemy.

and assistance, preventing the strikes of the enemy and reducing losses(1).

The Arabs of the Age of Ignorance would employ the ‘Karr wa Farr’ (strike and flee) tactic in their wars(2). But the Holy Prophet (S) invented a new form of arrangement and organization of the ranks(3) with a specific order, and this technique has also been used in more recent wars and especially in World War II. The arrangement of ranks was either in the form of a single column or many columns.

In the Battle of Badr, the Holy Prophet (S) arranged the troops in two columns(4), in such a way that he placed the archers in the first column(5) and in the second column he positioned the spearers and the infantry(6), and behind this column he put the rear of the army(7).

Later, he changed this arrangement and organization and transferred the first column to the heart of the army and reorganized the right flank, the left flank and also the infantry(8). When the soldiers would be arranged into two columns, a section of the cavalry would remain behind the second column and in the rear i.e. behind the infantry and the second column.

The women, munitions, preserves, the commander’s camp, the place for prayer, food and other provisions were placed at the rear of the army(9). The place of the commander was in the heart and the first column of the army(10), the lookout post was at an elevation(11) from where he could get an overview and control the battle,

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just as the Holy Prophet (S) had done in when commanding the battles of Badr and Uhud.

Organization and arrangement of the troops in battle

First scenario

Second scenario

Third scenario

Fourth scenario

The situation on the ground in the Battle of Uhud and its results

KEY

The place where Hamza the uncle of the Prophet (S), 'Abdullah ibn Jahash and Mus'ab ibn 'Umayr have been buried.

The place where the martyrs of Uhud have been buried.

The area where there Muslim army fought with the army of the polytheists.

The last borders of the battle in the east and west.

The place where Hamza ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ® was martyred.

The place where archers from the Muslim were positioned to guard the pass on the small Mountain of al-Rummāh.

The place where the Holy Prophet (S) was hidden after he had been injured - it was inside a fissure in the side of Mount Uhud.

Masjid al-Fasah.

Masjid al-Mustarāh (where the Holy Prophet (S) rested with his army before entering into Uhud).

Masjid al-Dir' (where the Prophet (S) stopped briefly when returning from Uhud)

the enemies who were besieged inside the fortresses(1), distancing one’s own forces from the reach of the enemy’s arrows(2), deceiving the besieged enemy using different means(3) in order to get them to come out of their fortress.

The Bani Qaynuqā’ surrendered after fifteen nights of siege(4) and the Bani Nadhir had also been besieged for fifteen days after which they lowered their heads in surrender on the command of the Prophet (S)(5). The Bani Quraydha were also dealt with in the same manner(6). After this, the inhabitants of Khaybar came to the Prophet (S) and agreed to obey his commands, thus they were exiled to Syria(7). The Holy Prophet (S) also besieged Tā’if and after a while the caused them to come out of the siege(8).

The Noble Prophet (S), in his orders, limited the attack on the Fortress of Khaybar to the eastern direction, just as the present day armies do. He made the priority of the mission was to gain control over the primary fortress(9) and then he gained control over all their forts one after another(10). Once their fall and defeat was complete, he gave the order for them to attack the secondary fortress(11). They gained control over that too and captured (the forts) one after the other(12) until they achieved their goal completely and then proceeded to conquer the main defense fortress(13) which was another of the orders the army had been given.

The Muslim army turned its focus on the first defensive fort(14), and especially on the Fort

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of Nā’im(1) and once that had fallen, they moved towards the other forts. Before carrying out any attack on these forts, he (S) obtained the required information(2) and surveillance on them(3), then he positioned his forces in the area of al-Rajee’(4) thereby separating the Ghatfān(5) (who were allies and helpers of the enemy) with the inhabitants of Khaybar and through this tactic he gave the advantage to the Muslim army, because he was able to prevent these tribes from working with the Jews of Khaybar thereby making it easy to attack the forts from all sides(6) and conquer them(7) while also being free to maneuver(8) and divide the enemy(9). The supreme commander started with the Fort of Nā’im(10) and conquered it. Then he attacked the other forts(11) and in this way he conquered the forts gradually, one by one.

remove the gravel, they used metal tools, pickaxes and large buckets(1) and the removed gravel was poured outside to hide the front-line that would counter the enemy(2) and the remaining areas were concealed using rocks that were brought from Mount Sala’(3). Then passageways from which their own troops could pass from the trench were made(4). In order to dig through hard ground and rock, water was first poured over it and then it was struck with the pickaxe continuously until it eventually broke up(5).

The Battle of Bani Qaynuqā' (fig. 1)

The Battle of Bani Nadhir (fig. 2)

KEY (fig. 1 2)

1. The route from Basra to Damascus

2. Mount Uhud

3. Volcanic rock

4. Route taken by the Muslim army (fig. 1) Mount Sala' (fig. 2)

5. The city of Madina

6. The Jews of Bani Qaynuqā'

7. The Jews of Bani Quraydha

8. The Jews of Bani Nadhir

9. Mount 'Aseer

The length of the ditch was five thousand cubits, which is equivalent to two kilometers and its width was nine cubits, which is equal to four meters, while its depth was between five and seven cubits which comes up to about three meters(6). Digging the trench took between six to ten days(7). The Muslim army spread out along the border of the

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trench to face the enemy. They carried with them the weapons that were required and stood right behind the trench(1). They would remain on constant watch and guard the areas where there was a possibility that the enemy could pass through(2).

When the soldiers of the two armies came face to face, they began shooting long arrows towards each other(3). If the enemy came near the trench and crossed over it, they would use their swords(4), and when this was happening to some of the enemy soldiers, and in the process ‘Amr ibn ‘Abd Wudd(5) was killed, the other soldiers retreated and rejoined their forces behind the trench. In this battle, the Muslim forces used stones abundantly(6) and had gathered them along the line of the trench.

The trench that was dug was quite helpful to the Muslim army and acted as a barrier between them and the enemy. In the end it must be said that the Battle of Khandaq is not much different from the present-day battles, and aside from different weaponry, there is very little else that is dissimilar.

Bani Quraydha (Ref. KEY 2.1)

KEY 2.1: Battle of Bani Quraydha

1. The route from Basra to Damascus

2. Mount Uhud

3. Mount Sala'

4. The Muslim army

5. The city of Madina

6. The Jews of Bani Quraydha

7. The Jews of Bani Nadhir

8. Mount 'Aseer

The Battle of Khaybar (Ref. KEY 2.2)

KEY 2.2: Battle of Khaybar

1. Khaybar

2. Fadak

3. The Muslim army

4. The route traversed by the army (in eight days)

5. The city of Madina

6. Mount 'Aseer

7. Mount Sala'

8. Mount Uhud

9. The route to Madā'in

The Battle of Khandaq (Ref. KEY 2.3)

KEY 2.3: Battle of Khandaq

1. Mount Uhud

2. Volcanic rocks

3. The confederate army (Ahzāb)

4. The place where the enemy was blocked

5. The defensive trench (2 km long)

6. Permanent guard-posts

Current map of Madina with the place where the Battle of Khandaq took place and the location of the al-Masājid al-Sab'ah or 'seven mosques' (Ref. KEY 2.4)

KEY 2.4: Present-day Madina

1. The graveyard of al-Baqee'

2. Abu Dharr al-Ghaffāri Street

3.

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The area of Uhud

4. Sayyid al-Shuhadā Street

5. Path of the trench (that was dug in the Battle of Khandaq)

6. Abu Bakr Street

7. Mount Sala'

8. Masjid al-Fath

9. Masjid Salmān al-Fārsi

10. Masjid 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb

11. Masjid Abu Bakr

12. Masjid 'Ali ibn Abi Tālib ('a)

13. Masjid Dhul Qiblatayn

14. Masjid Fātimah bint Muhammad (S)

The Conquest of Makkah (Ref. KEY 2.5)

KEY 2.5: Conquest of Makkah

1. The Muslim army - 10,000 strong

2. The forces of Abi 'Ubaydah ibn Jarrāh

3. The forces of Qays ibn Sa'd ibn 'Ubādah

4. The forces of Zayd ibn 'Awām

5. The place where the Muslim army encamped

6. The city of Makkah al-Mukarramah

7. Entrance into Makkah

8. The forces of Khālid bin Walid

9. Mountainous areas

He instructed the inhabitants of Makkah to throw down their weapons, close their door and windows(1), and show no resistance whatsoever(2). It was after these orders and instructions that he set up camp for the army in Hajun(3), and after conquering Makkah, he again prepared them for the next important mission.

Indeed, the supreme commander was highly capable in carrying out all these measures. Among other things, he made it clear to the people of Makkah that they were incapable of

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resisting the mighty Muslim army(1), and in this way he entered Makkah peacefully and enacted a peace treaty without any bloodshed or war(2).

Sariya missions or numerous military missions(1) to gather intelligence from the enemy forces and also to dishearten them or he would send them to attack their trading caravans - in order to display the might of the Muslim army. In this way, he established a somewhat new base of command in Madina. When the Quraysh came to learn of this change and technique, they decided that to destroy this army and were searching for an opportunity to annihilate the Muslim army before it could grow and develop into and unstoppable power, and this is why they prepared for the Battle of Badr(2).

Badr was the first full-fledged battle where the Muslim army displayed its readiness and capability for war(3) especially by choosing the appropriate place for setting up camp(4), innovation, organizing the battle-formation into columns in depth(5), training(6), zeal(7), faith and a new belief(8), discipline and following orders(9), the necessary organization and hierarchy of command(10) and by these military tactics, they strengthened their soldiers.

As for the Quraysh, they were stronger in terms of numbers and battle gear(11), and just as we will demonstrate, the victory is for the side that is better in terms of quality, not quantity; that is why the Prophet (S) astounded the enemy by his victory in Badr. After their defeat, the Quraysh became worried about the loss of their profits and trade and responded with a weak blow to this victory(12), and this was when Abu Sufyān launched an incursion into Madina and killed two civilians

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and then quickly returned towards Makkah. At this point, the Holy Prophet (S) sent soldiers to follow him as he was fleeing, but they did not catch up to him(1).

The supreme commander of the Muslim army would use economic sanctions and other means to put pressure on the Quraysh(2). For instance, he sent Zayd ibn Hāritha to al-Qurdah in order to attack the trading caravan of the Quraysh and he too was successful in overpowering it(3). In order to take revenge and gain freedom from sanctions and other pressures, the enemy assembled a large army and prepared for the Battle of Uhud(4). In the first phase, the Muslim army was victorious(5), but in the second phase(6), because of the disobedience of the archers to the orders of the supreme commander and their abandonment of their positions in order to take the spoils of war, the result turned in favor of the Quraysh(7).

In the end, however, the final result was in favor of the Muslim army(8) i.e. when the Holy Prophet (S) was able to gather a large number of troops(9), and remain steadfast(10) despite his injuries and losses, was able to launch a counter-attack in the Battle of Hamrā’ al-Asad(11). In this way, by being a prudent(12), determined and courageous(13) commander, and by using psychological warfare(14) through which he instilled fear in the hearts of the enemy, he caused their forces to fall down helplessly.

The string of consecutive victories that were achieved by the Prophet (S)(15) against the Quraysh, the

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Jews and the enemy Arab tribes, made it evident that there was a serious threat that was forming against them(1) and they had no choice but to annihilate this Muslim army. For this purpose, they came together, joined hands and made covenants with each other so that they could assemble a united army to fight against the Muslims. As a result, some Arab tribes and Jews joined with the Quraysh and launched what was to be known as the Battle of Confederates (Ahzāb)(2).

The confederates came into the field with a large force, numbering almost ten thousand strong(3), and proceeded towards Madina. However, they were stopped in their tracks by the large trench(4) that was dug by the Muslim army(5). Although they made many attempts to cross over it, but all in vain(6) and because of the differences that arose between them, they returned without having realized their military objective(7). From the ingenuity and innovation of a new strategy in warfare i.e. digging the trench(8) and also due to the leadership of a continent(9), steadfast commander(10), using deception(11) and having high spiritual values(12), the Muslim army gained victory over the Quraysh and their allies.

The consequence of this was that the reverence that the Arab tribes felt for the Quraysh was greatly reduced(13) and they lost their position as central political and military figures(14). The respect of Abu Sufyān was lost because of this(15), he failed as a commander and his pivotal role was demeaned in the eyes of his allies. This

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was because the severe loss he faced was caused by a trench(1) and by the fleeing of the tribes of Ghatfān and their partners, the Quraysh were put to shame(2) and it became established that they are totally incapable of gaining a victory over this (Muslim) army(3).

After this battle, the Jews got worried and became sure that they would be annihilated because they broke their pledges and pacts with the Muslims(4). The Prophet (S) immediately besieged the Bani Quraydha and was successful in removing them from Madina(5). It must be said that this battle was the point of change for the Muslim army, from a defensive state to an offensive one(6).

News of the pressure and hardships that came upon the Quraysh because of their loss in this battle reached the Holy Prophet (S), so he sent Zayd ibn Hāritha(7) with a mission to cut off their supply routes and prevent their caravans from travelling outside, and he successfully carried out this mission(8).

This victory was followed soon after by the Treaty of Hudaybiyya(9) which was to tantamount to another victory for the Muslim army, however the Quraysh reneged on the agreement(10), and were looking for an opportunity to come out of it and stand up against to the Muslim army. As a result, the Prophet (S) hastened his preparation for the Conquest (of Makkah)(11) and marched against their city and homes. In order to enter Makkah, he made a secret plan(12) and this plan was to carry out a surprise invasion(13).

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After he had bewildered the Quraysh and left them with no choice but to surrender to this army(1), he entered Makkah and gained victory over his enemies(2). After this victory, the Quraysh also acknowledged the Holy Prophet (S) as their leader and accepted the religion of Islām(3).

Tamim(1) in al-Suqyā(2) and Bani Khath’am(3) in Batn Musjā’(4).

The Holy Prophet (S) would carry out pre-emptive wars(5) against these tribes, meaning that he would launch an attack on them first before they could march towards Madina(6). More often than not, the enemy would flee in fear the moment they heard that the Muslim army was on its way(7); to such an extent that they would also leave their animals behind as war booty (for the Muslim army to take)(8).

The number of troops in these military missions would vary from battle to battle(9). In the Battle of Bawāt, the number of soldiers reached two hundred strong whereas in the Battle of Badr, they numbered three hundred and a few. Similarly, the numbers would change from Sariya mission to Sariya mission(10). For example, in the Sariya of Muhammad ibn Maslamah against the Bani Bakr, the soldiers numbered thirty, whereas in the Sariya of Zayd ibn Hāritha against the tribe of Judhām, there were fifty. In the Sariya of Usāma bin Zayd to fight against the Romans, the number of forces reached three thousand. In this way, the supreme commander would send the appropriate number of forces depending on the number of enemy soldiers and the type of mission.

Because of the fact that the enemy tribes that have been mentioned were spread out throughout the Arabian peninsula(11), from far and near they were affected by the Muslim army(12) and were never able to launch raids, invasions or attacks on Madina(13). The attacks of

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the Muslim army on these tribes were based on swiftness(1), surprise attack(2), marching at night(3), secret missions(4), gathering new and important intelligence(5); and this is why they would always attain victory.

The priorities in dealing with these tribes and making them submissive were specified in such a way(6) that they would first concentrate their efforts on gaining control over the tribes in the coastal regions(7), then they would move on to those in the east (of the Arab peninsula)(8) and finally the other tribes would be attacked(9). In the same way, they would start with tribes that were nearer and then proceed towards those that were further(10). They were also precautious of the threat posed by the tribes of Bani Saleem, Ghatfān and Tamim(11)...

to them that had happened to the other Jews. Ka’b ibn Ashraf, Salām bin Abi al-Haqiq and other Jewish leaders(1) who had gone against and fermented opposition to the supreme commander and the Muslims(2), had seen their end and were killed in suicide missions(3).

The Jews of Bani Nadhir(4) also did not hesitate to betray the Prophet (S) after the Muslims lost the Battle of Uhud, and even made plans to assassinate him(5). This was when the Holy Prophet (S) sought to take the blood-money for the two Muslims killed by ‘Amr ibn Umayyah al-Dhumri and had gone to their land for this purpose(6). Because of this treachery, the Prophet (S) besieged them and took over their lands(7).

The Jews of Bani Quraydha also joined hands with the Quraysh to work against the Muslim army in the Battle of Khandaq(8). Their attempts and struggles were to no avail and because they broke their allegiance to the Muslims, they returned back afraid and worried(9). That which they had thought of did not transpire and now they saw themselves under threat of being besieged.

After the Battle of Khandaq, the Holy Prophet (S) himself led the army(10), marching towards the area of the Bani Quraydha(11). He fought a battle with them and put them all to death(12). Despite this, the Jews continued in their enmity with the Muslims and again began inciting and encouraging the Arab tribes to fight against the army of the Prophet (S). This is why the Battle of Khaybar took place(13).

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In this war also, the victory belonged to the Muslim army(1) and as a result the greatest opposing force and enemy was done away with, and all the Jews surrendered(2).

The battles against the Jews were different from other battles because they were in fortresses(3) and secure shelters and were able to store the needed supplies and weapons for a long period of time(4). They used to construct their buildings in elevated locations so as to prevent the archers and lookouts, keep the enemies at bay by the strength and fortification of their fortresses(5), dig moats just outside the and filling them with water(6).

The Jews would store a lot of other weapons and armaments in the fortress and would use them when needed(7). At the same time, they would be well trained and would possess all the battle gear that was required(8). The number of Jews was many times more than the soldiers in the Muslim army(9). In the Battle of Bani Qaynuqā’ they numbered seven hundred as opposed to the four hundred in the Muslim army. In the Battle of Bani Quraydha, three thousand Jews fought against only seven hundred Muslims and in the Battle of Khaybar, there were ten thousand strong against an army of 1,500 fighters. Aside from this, they had a lot of wealth(10) and wielded a lot of economic, political and military influence(11); but despite all this, they were still divided(12) and each group would fight on its own without the help of the others. In

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the Battle of Qaynuqā’, nobody joined forces with them and this was the case with the other battles against the Jews also.

In the battles against the Jews, the Muslim army had the following distinct characteristics:

Laying siege(1): this was a technique where all the aide and military assistance was completely blocked from reaching the enemy(2).

Remaining far away from the reach of enemy arrows(3).

Carrying out frontal and side attacks on their fortress(4), as they did at Khaybar.

Using psychological warfare(5).

Heightening the spirits of their own forces(6).

Selecting a suitable place to set camp(7).

Creating a split between the Jewish forces(8). This was done using the superior battle strategy of the Muslims. Once this was achieved, the Prophet (S) was able to gain separate victories over the Bani Qaynuqā’(9), Bani Nadhir(10), Bani Quraydha(11) and the residents of Khaybar(12). Aside from this, the Muslim army was distinguished by its unity of command, concentration, obedience, persistence and swiftness(13); all of which made it possible to attain victory and overpower the Jews.

to learn about the Roman forces and how to invade them(1).

The Battle of Muta was the first full-fledged battle between the Muslim army and the Roman troops(2). It can be said that the goals of this battle were to display the might of the Muslim army(3) and test the capability of the enemy(4). However the vast difference between the forces of the two sides made this war one-sided(5).

The supreme commander came face to face with the Romans for a second time in the Battle of Tabuk(6). One of the goals of this battle was the avenging of the Martyrs of Muta(7) and launching an attack on the enemy and their allies(8). In this battle, no combat was seen, however a large part of its objectives were fulfilled. The pressure against the Romans continued and in the end, an army under the command of Usāma bin Zayd was send against them(9). He attained victory in this battle and in this way the first victory over the Romans was established. After this the Muslims continued in their war against them(10).

The Romans had become worried from the time when the first battle against them was fought near their borders(11) and they turned their attention towards this growing Muslim army whom they expected to face again. However, the Holy Prophet (S) dispelled the fear of this enemy from his forces(12) and he put the idea in their minds that conquering the lands of Shām is not difficult or impossible(13). He (S) would train his

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troops to bear the hardships of travelling the long and arduous routes, and endure the difficulties and tribulations of the desert(1). Having subjugated some of the neighboring tribes(2), he made several pacts with them(3) so that they could act as a refuge and a leading force in this army against the Romans and open up the way for the Battle of Muta(4).

The Roman soldiers were known for their military outfits and great adornments(5). Their forces, weapons, equipment and armaments were plenty(6) for this reason they became heavy and their maneuvers became sluggish and slow(7). The Roman foot-soldiers would use bows in situations where they had not been trained for battle(8). Aside from this, the Roman forces and the Arabs (who were in their service) had no co-operation with each other, and because they were all mixed together(9), they did not have an opportunity to conduct well planned maneuvers together. Aside from this, they had a weak system of command which greatly reduced their efficiency and speed in battle(10).

As for the Muslim army, it was distinguished by its continuous attacks on the enemy(11), psychological warfare(12), securing of the northern borders and strategic locations(13), taking the battle away from its own land(14), remaining steadfast against an enemy that was stronger(15), and employing the principles of war in different ways(16). This was accompanied by practice, maneuvering(17) and ease of movement(18). When a soldier would shoot arrows while moving, his stability and poise would increase. It was as if he was not carrying any

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weapon or battle gear such as would impede on his swiftness or cause him to remain behind and become weary(1).

armed forces today conduct training exercises so as to gain experience and remain free from fear, sluggishness or laziness.

Military training in the Muslim army was something that was conducted on a continuous basis(1). Between one Sariya and another or between one battle and the next there was not a long gap(2).

For example, after the completion of the Sariya of Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, a month later the Sariya of ‘Ubaydah ibn Hārith was conducted. The Battle of Dhi al-‘Asheera took place a month after the Sariya of ‘Abdullah ibn Jahash and the gap between the battles of Dhi Amr and Bahrān was no more than two months. The Sariya of Muhammad ibn Maslamah against the Bani Tha’labah and ‘Awāl took one month and the Sariya of Abi ‘Ubaydah ibn Jarrāh came immediately after it. During these short gaps, the forces would prepare to march against the (next) enemy and some of the units would undergo training before battle(3); just as they had done in the Battle of Badr and the Conquest.

The continuous training (of the troops) had the following results:

It would increase in the steadfastness of the individuals(4), like in the Sariya of Zayd ibn Hāritha where his later missions were carried out with more steadfastness than his previous missions. Similarly, the ‘battle of the fortress’ that took place at Khaybar was better than the battles of Bani Nadhir and Bani Qaynuqā’.

The hesitation and fear of coming face to face with the enemy was removed(5). In the Battle of Badr,

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the forces were more hopeful of taking over the caravan of the Quraysh without having to fight a battle and they were fearful of face to face combat. However, in the Battle of Uhud, they were competing with each other to go to battle and most of them gave the view that they should go out of Madina to face the enemy threat, because at this time fear and trepidation had totally disappeared from them.

It strengthened the spirits of the forces(1) and established the certainty of victory in them(2); as in the battles of Hunayn and Ahzāb.

Swiftness in getting prepared for battle(3) was maintained with precision and quality as in the Battle of Dhāt al-Suwayq, the war against the Bani Mahārib and Tha’labah in the Battle of Dhāt al-Ruqā’, and in the Battle of Bani Quraydhah. This made them stronger and more capable to quickly carry out orders, remain swift in the difficult circumstances of battle and able to change tactics(4); in the same way as was witnessed after the army had dispersed and the forces had made blunders in the battles of Uhud and Hunayn.

stockpile the armaments(1).

The most important weapons that were used by the Muslim army were:

1. Offensive weapons(2): these included mainly the sword, spear and bow.

2. Defensive weapons: the most important of which were the armor, shield, helmet and the mail that was worn under it.

each with a different name(1). The supreme commander also had a number of armors, the most important of which were: Dhāt al-Fudhul, al-Sadriyya and al-Sird(2).

Helmets would be made from iron and would be worn to protect the head from attacks by offensive weapons(3).

‘Mighfar’ was the armor or mail that a soldier would place under his helmet and would cover his head and face with it so that he does not get injured(4). The Holy Prophet (S) and the soldiers who fought alongside him in battle would use this(5).

‘Minjineeq’ (catapult) was one of the ‘heavy’ weapons which was used to throw huge boulders or fireballs on the enemy(6).

‘Dabbābah’ (tank)(7): These two weapons (i.e. the catapult and the tank) were used in the Battle of Tā’if.

In the same way, the Muslim army would give importance to the arming of the cavalry(8) and would give it a priority over the other ranks. In the first battles, the soldiers on horseback were few. For example, in the Battle of Badr, there were only two soldiers on horseback(9). This number reached two hundred in the Battle of Khaybar(10) and in the Conquest of Makkah there were more than two thousand soldiers on horseback(11).

As for the sources from where weapons could be procured, these included:

1. By way of those who would engage in making them and selling them to the soldiers(12) but this small number was not enough for the whole army.

2. From the buyers who

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would buy from inside the Arabian Peninsula(1) and outside it(2). The budget for buying the weapons from this source would be gotten from:

a) The personal wealth and possessions of the soldiers(3)

b) Those who were in charge of the army.

c) The wealth that would remain after distribution(4).

d) The booty that was taken from the enemy(5) and especially the Jews.

The supreme commander would leave behind some of the wealth after making pacts of alliance with the defeated enemies, however he would never leave behind any of their weapons; because this was the main source of weapons and strengthening the army while at the same time weakening the enemy in order to prevent any future attacks and incursions(6). There was also another source of weapons for the army and that was taking them on loan and then returning them to their owners after the battle(7).

Training with weapons was one of the requirements of the Muslim army and the supreme commander would insist and encourage the fighters to train on how to carry the weapons(8), the principles of their usage(9), archery and gaining mastery over it(10), training on the use of the catapult(11). Many of the Muslims such as Talha ibn ‘Abdillah al-Qarashi and Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqās(12) were well known for their skill in archery. At the same time, the Prophet (S) emphasized on training the riders who would fight on horseback(13). He (S)

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also gave importance to the creation of weapons and encouraged and promised paradise to those who would undertake this task(1). For this purpose, he sent a group to Jurash (Yemen) in order to learn how to make new weapons and acquire them before the siege of Tā’if(2).

The importance given to making various light weaponry(3) was another of the goals of the supreme commander and for this he would give orders to the weapon makers in the area for different models of spears and bows(4). When the weapons were distributed among the soldiers, those that were on loan would be taken back and those acquired from war booty would be kept by them. In this way, each soldier would get to use more than one type of weapon(5).

As for supplies of weapons during battle, the situation was not as it is in the new age. A soldier would bring whatever weapon he had in his possession, and whatever he needed in the battlefield, he would have to carry himself. So if he were to lose one of his weapons or it were to break, he would exchange it and continue to fight(6). With regards to the storing and stockpiling of weapons, each individual would store his own weapons in his home(7) and things were not as they are today i.e. there was no central repository where the weapons would be stockpiled. In the house of every soldier, a number of swords, spears and bows could be found, and he would pay

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due attention to their repair and maintenance(1).

In times of ‘peace’, the weapons would be kept in a large warehouse that was strategically located and would be guarded(2). The supreme commander would order that weapons must be carried at all times, in every situation, even when the enemies are not (apparently) present. He would forbid the forces who had returned from battle and were tired and weary, and intended to remove their weapons(3), from doing so and he was always put the thought about the struggle (against the sworn enemy), whether in times of war or peace, in the present or future, despite the presence or absence of the enemy in their minds and would strengthen this idea in them(4).

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carried some amount of supplies and munitions(1) with them and each one of these groups would be supervised by a commander who would oversee their work(2). The Prophet (S) would emphasize on keeping the supplies and military equipment well hidden. He (S) would only specify where the rear of the army began(3) and would not give importance to where it ended.

The limits of the rear of the army during encampment was defined as the last lines of the army(4), and while marching also, it was the last group(5). The main missions of this department was to secure the facilities and material resources needed by the army, carry out medical treatment, assist the injured and handicapped and carry them away from the battlefield, burying the martyrs and gathering the spoils of war(6).

also benefit from the abundant local resources(1).

The sources of food and supplies for the army in the areas where the battles were fought included: In the Battle of Badr from the hunting of deer; in the Battle of Dhāt al-Ruqā’ from cucumbers and ostrich eggs; in the Battle of Hudaybiyya from cucumbers, the meat of deer, wild donkeys and other animals whose meat is permissible to eat, and yoghurt; and in the Battle of Khaybar from a variety of different sources.

Full reinforcements from Madina only came when Sa’d ibn ‘Ubādah had the responsibility of bringing the reinforcements(2) in the Battle of Hamrā al-Asad. At this time he would slaughter two to three animals (whose meat was permissible to eat) every day. In the battles of Dhi Qurā and Waddān, he brought reinforcements with dates and meat from slaughtered animals(3). At times, like in the Sariya of ‘Amr ibn ‘Aās, the supplies were sent by soldiers on foot(4).

As for the food for horses and camels, it was provided for from the abundant grazing grounds especially in the areas where the army was camped(5). In the Battle of Uhud, the Quraysh used the grazing grounds and fields that belonged to the Ansār. In the battles of Badr and Bani al-Mustalaq, the Muslim army took benefit from the wells of Badr and Murisiyya’. Muslim soldiers would sometimes use crushed date seeds to feed their horses and camels(6) while in the Battle of Khandaq, the Quraysh carried corn as fodder for their horses(7).

Relief in

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its true and complete sense during battle was not done except through giving drinking water(1). This was done by means of water bags which were carried by soldiers(2), or through injured and handicapped soldiers(3). The women would also at times participate in this exercise and would carry the water bags for long distances and exchange them for empty water bags. These relief operations continued even in the time when the heat of battle had subsided(4) and some of the helpers would take water to the supreme commander and the troops during this time(5).

it there was an important road that led towards the land of Shām (Syria) and there was continuous relief support conducted using different means between these two routes. Whenever these central points were cut off for any reason, the army forces would face hardships in terms of lack of sufficient relief supplies and provisions.

Similarly, in the beginning the Muslim army tried to cut off the supply routes of the Quraysh and they would be so harsh on them that at times they would be pushed to the brink of destruction(1). When the point of supply from Madina was partially cut off, the supreme commander would reopen them by gaining victory of the tribes that were responsible for closing the route(2).

taken at night and during the Conquest of Makkah, because of the speed required, it was only for a brief period of time. Aside from this, the period of rest would be determined by the state of the troops and the distance they had covered and would be short or long accordingly(1).

And if there was a serious need to reach the enemy (as quick as possible), the rest-stops would be shortened. If this was not done, like in the Sariya of Muhammad ibn Maslamah against the Bani Bakr, the duration would be prolonged. In some of the Sariya missions, the army would rest the whole day and would march at night in order to carry out a surprise attack.

and hard desert(1). However, donkeys were mostly used for non-military purposes(2) to cover short distances in and around Madina. A number of troops would bring camels to the battlefield(3). They would carry their battle gear and rations and also the special fodder for camels on the camels’ backs.

Women would also sit in howdahs on these animals at the rear of the army and would be taken along(4). The army would be divided into sections depending on the number of soldiers and camels that were used for transport. Each section had two to four soldiers(5) who would put the equipment that could be carried on the backs of camels like one big caravan(6). The length of these sections when marching depended on the number of camels and soldiers in it(7).