from the Islamic point of view by delving into the relevant sources: the Qurʾan, the Prophetic traditions (ahadith) and the conduct of the Muslims.

In addition, through reviewing the historical evidences and by means of a psychological analysis, we will seek to prove that cussing - “sabb” (سبّ) and swearing - “shatam” (شطم) are absolutely forbidden (haram) in the sacred teachings of Islam; however as for ­malediction - “laʿn” (لعن), it is something which is essential from the societal point of view.

We will see how the permissibility of malediction - “laʿn” (لعن) is something which all of the Muslim scholars agree upon and that what we see today from the Wahhabi sect and those who follow this particular group which has become prevalent in the world in which they categorize malediction alongside cussing and swearing and claim that all of these go against the teachings of Islam, is nothing other than baseless and futile claims which lack any form of evidence.

vis-à-vis the person who is acting with goodness is the actual show of love of a person towards good itself; and this stance towards love is a cherished guide to assist a person in reaching towards perfection and spiritual happiness.

In the same vein, taking a stand and expressing abhorrence and aversion towards individuals who have sunk to the lowest levels of depravity in which they have permitted themselves to commit the most heinous of atrocities and reach the bottom levels of baseness, is in reality, the explicit confirmation of aversion to wickedness itself and keeping away from everything which will distance a person from God Almighty.

The noble companions who lived during the time of Prophet Muhammad (S), were fully aware of the life of the Noble Messenger (S) and in addition, because they possessed a special status, they managed to gain the attention of all of the believers – even though all of the companions were not at the same [spiritual] level.

Some of them were not able to remain firm on the path of true faith and some of them even ended up drifting away entirely from the path which they had chosen during the life-time of the Prophet(S).

It is due to this fact that today, it is necessary that those who brought about true faith during the life-time of the Messenger of God (S) and remained on the straight path until the end [of their lives] and the individuals who were led astray while traversing the straight

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path and performed actions which went against the ways of the Noble Prophet (S) and transgressed his commandments – need to be understood and distinguished from one another.

In regards to the first group, we must show love and affection; while in regards to the second group and their base actions, we must display our disgust and distance ourselves from their un-ethical deeds.

Therefore, according to the habit of God in the Qur’an, the Muslims must invoke the malediction of God and must seek aversion from that group whose atrocities and opposition to the orders and dictates of the Noble Prophet (S) reached such a critical level that it resulted in the misguidance of many other individuals.

and has stated: “Cussing and usage of vulgar language towards a Muslim is a sin.”(1)

During the battle of Siffin, when the Commander of the Faithful ʿAli Ibn Abi Talib (as) was informed that some of his companions where using bad language in regards to the people of the Levant (Sham), he addressed them by saying: “I dislike that you start to verbally abuse them (using vulgar language), but if you describe their deeds and recount their situations (their actions) that would be a better mode of speaking and a more convincing way of arguing [with others about how these people are].”(2)

In addition, Imam Jaʿfar as-Sadiq (as) has stated: “The cussing of a believer [by another believer] is like the one who has thrown himself into perdition.”(3)

Therefore, cussing is definitely recognized as something which is expressly forbidden (haram) in Islam and any sane and rational person will be sure to refrain from such actions; however as for evoking malediction, this is something other than cussing and its meaning is to “distance oneself towards something good.”

Al-Jawhari has stated: “Al-Laʿn is to drive way and to distance one’s self away [from evil and going towards] good.”(4)

In addition, malediction has also been defined as displaying an aversion towards an individual’s despicable actions.

Raghib al-Isfhani has stated that: “Malediction means the rejection and distancing of oneself [from something] - angrily. If malediction is practiced by God, then its meaning is that in the next life, one will face the Divine retribution; while in the transient world,

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it means that the individual will be cut off from being able to accept the mercy [of God] and the Divine providence.

If malediction is employed by an individual, then it means that one makes supplication and imprecation and entreats [God] to bring about damage to the person whom one is praying against.”(1)

Therefore, malediction means to distance one’s self from the despicable actions of an individual and to pray that he is detached from the mercy of God.

Perhaps the best way to phrase this word is to state that it ultimately means: “May God never forgive you.” For example, in some instances it may be said of an individual: “May God never forgive that person whose actions led to the killing of countless innocent people” – this is malediction.

Such phrases can never be considered to be positive or in a person’s benefit [although one is praying “for” someone else]; rather, the supplication against a person (imprecation) is due to the fact that one has committed a contemptible action, and therefore when a person says: “O God! Remove your mercy from such and such person,” what we mean is that we are asking God to leave that person alone on his own and not forgive him for his evil actions.

of cussing has been prohibited in the Qur’an, however there are many instances in which malediction has been used.

world and in the Hereafter…”(1)

7. Those who falsely accuse women of illicit sexual improprieties:

إِنَّ الَّذِینَ یَرْمُونَ الْمُحْصَنَاتِ الْغَافِلاَتِ الْمُؤْمِنَاتِ لُعِنُوا فِی الدُّنْیَا وَ الآخِرَهِ

“Indeed those who accuse honorable and unwary faithful women shall be cursed in this world and the Hereafter…”(2)

8. Those who kill innocent believers:

وَمَنْ یَقْتُلْ مُؤمِناً مُتَعَمِّداً فَجَزَاءُهُ جَهَنَّمُ خَالِداً فِیهَا وَ غَضِبَ اللهُ عَلَیْهِ وَ لَعَنَهُ وَ أَعَدَّ لَهُ عَذَابَاً عَظِیماً

“Should anyone kill a believer intentionally, his requital shall be hell, to remain in it [forever]; God shall be wrathful to him and maledict against him and He will prepare for him a great punishment.”(3)

9. Hypocrites:

وَعَدَ اللهُ الْمُنَافِقِینَ وَ الْمُنَافِقَاتِ وَ الْکُفَّارَ نَارَ جَهَنَّمَ خَالِدِینَ فِیهَا هِیَ حَسْبُهُمْ وَلَعَنَهُمُ اللهُ وَلَهُمْ عَذَابٌ مُقِیمٌ

“God has promised the hypocrites, men and women, and the faithless - the Fire of Hell, to remain in it [forever]. That suffices them. God has evoked malediction upon them, and there is a lasting punishment for them.”(4)

10. Those who spread corruption and also sever their family ties:

فَهَلْ عَسَیْتُمْ إِنْ تَوَلَّیْتُمْ أَنْ تُفْسِدُوا فِی الأَرْضِ وَ تُقَطِّعُوا أَرْحَامَکُمْ أُوْلٰئِکَ الَّذِینَ لَعَنَهُمُ اللهُ فَأَصَمَّهُمْ وَ أَعْمَیٰ أَبْصَارَهُمْ

“May it not be that if you were to wield authority you would cause corruption in the land and ill-treat your blood relations? They are the ones upon whom God has evoked malediction upon, so He made them deaf, and blinded their sight.”(5)

imprecations mentioned in these verses into specific historical examples, we see that the words of the Qur’an fit some of the companions of the Prophet (S); however in other instances, there are clear verses of specific companions who have been imprecated against.

One such verse of the Qur’an is the following:

وَ إِذْ قُلْنَا لَکَ إِنَّ رَبَّکَ أَحَاطَ بِالنَّاسِ وَ مَا جَعَلْنَا الرُّؤْیَا الَّتِی أَرَیْنَاکَ إِلاَّ فِتْنَهً لِلنَّاسِ وَ الشَّجَرَهَ الْمَلْعُونَهَ فِی الْقُرْآنِ وَ نُخَوِّفُهُمْ فَمَا یَزِیدُهُمْ إِلاَّ طُغْیَاناً کَبِیراً

“When We said to you, ‘Indeed your Lord comprehends all humanity,’ We did not appoint the vision that We showed you except as a test for the people and the tree cursed in the Qurʾan. We deter them, but it only increases them in great rebellion.”(1)

In relation to the exegesis of this verse, the commentators of the Noble Qur’an have stated that the meaning of the “cursed tree” is the family tree and lineage of Hakam Ibn Abil ʿAs; and the meaning of the ‘vision’ which was seen is the dream which the Noble Prophet (S) saw in which the children of Marwan b. Hakam were one by one, ascending his pulpit (mimbar).(2)

(laʿn) in a general meaning, such as when he stated: “The thief, the young man who comes out looking like a woman and also the woman whose appearance is that of a man, the person who slaughters an animal without taking the name of God, the person who imprecates against his own parents, the one who engages in the same actions as the people of Lot (Prophet Lut) (homosexuality) and the one who takes bribes [are all those who have been distanced from the mercy of God]…”(1)

The Prophet of Islam (S) has also been quoted as saying: “May God remove His mercy (la’n) from alcoholic drinks, the one who drinks alcohol, the one who serves alcohol, the seller, the purchaser and…”(2)

The Prophet of Islam (S) has also said: “May God remove His mercy (la’n) from the one who takes usury, the one who gives usury, the one who writes [a contract based on usury] and the witnesses [who witness a transaction involving usury].”(3)

There are times in which the Noble Prophet (S) also mentioned specific individuals and made imprecation against them.

Shaʿbi has narrated that: “While leaning against the Kaʿbah, ʿAbdullah b. Zubayr stated: ‘I take an oath by the Lord of this house that indeed the Messenger of God had imprecated against so and so and whosoever was born from his loins.”(4)

In regards to whom it was that ʿAbdullah b. Zubayr was referring to, it has been mentioned by Hakim al-Nishaburi in a tradition found in his Mustadrak that the

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person was Hakam b. ʿAs and his son.(1)

In addition, Marwan and his father were also people who the Messenger of God (S) imprecated against. Hakim al-Nishaburi has narrated a tradition found in his Mustadrak that states: “The Messenger of God imprecated against the father of Marwan even before Marwan was born.”(2)

On various occasions, the Messenger of God (S) imprecated against Abu Sufyan and Muʿawiyah. ʿAli b. Aqmar has stated: “Along with a group of others, we asked ʿAbdullah b. ʿUmar to share a saying of the Prophet with us to which he replied: ‘While Abu Sufyan was on his steed and Muʿawiyah and his brothers were in front and behind their father (Abu Sufyan) riding on their animals, the Prophet said the following (in regards to them): ‘O God! Remove your mercy from the one who is riding [on the animal] at the front, the one who is following him and the one who is behind him.’

We asked him [ʿAbdullah b. ʿUmar]: ‘You heard this directly from the Messenger of God?’ He replied: ‘Yes and if I lie, may both of my ears go deaf and my I lose my sight.’”(3)

In another event, ʿAbdullah b. ʿUmar said: “The Messenger of God (S) once imprecated in the following fashion during the Battle of Uhud by saying: ‘O God! Remove your mercy from Abu Sufyan…’(4)

In addition, Ibn Barra’ has narrated from his father, Barraʾ b. ʿAzib that Abu Sufyan, along with his son Muʿawiyah, came to the Messenger (S), who said

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to them: “O God! Remove your mercy from the one who is following [Muʿawiyah] and the one whom he is following [Abu Sufyan]. O God! I leave ‘al-Aqyas’ to you [to deal with].’ Ibne Barra’ asked his father, “Who is al-Aqyas?” The father replied, “This is Muʿawiyah.”(1)

you as your similitude is that of a dog; if you go towards him, he sticks out his tongue; and if you leave him alone, he still sticks out his tongue.

Umru ʿAs replied to him: ‘May the imprecation of God be upon you and indeed your similitude is like the example of a donkey carrying a heavy weight upon itself!’”(1)

In addition, even ʿUmar b. al-Khattab imprecated against Khalid b. Walid when he killed Malik b. Nuwayrah.(2)

Finally, we see that ʿAbdullah b. ʿUmar imprecated three times against his own son.(3)

to examination and analysis or are maledicted against, then this may lead to the instability of Islam, whereas a faith whose fundamentals has been laid down by God, the Most High, and the Noble Prophet Muhammad (S), and as has been promised by God, will remain until the Day of Judgement, can never be made instable by the analysis and criticism of a few individuals!

Thus, this belief that the madhab of the companions is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic legislation must also be rejected!

In this regards, Imam al-Ghazali said: “The person, in whom there is a possibility of error and mistakes and whose infallibility from sins and faults is not proven, his statements are not a testimony or proof over us, therefore how can anyone ever rely on his testimony if he is prone to error!? In addition, how is it possible that without any successive proofs, one can claim infallibility of such individuals?

In addition, how is it possible to imagine that a community of individuals would never have any differences of opinion amongst themselves, and even more, how is it possible that two infallible people would ever differ amongst themselves - whereas we see that there is a consensus amongst all of the companions that one is permitted to go against the opinions of the other companions.

Why is it that Abu Bakr and ʿUmar never allowed anyone, by way of their own independent assessment (ijtihad), to differ with them; rather, in issues which call for ijtihad,

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it is an obligation upon every individual who has reached the level of being able to conduct independent research and analysis (mujtahid) to follow his own ijtihad!”(1)

Al-Shokani, apparently in discussing the sources of Islamic legislation, has raised an objection and has said that the opinions of the companions are not a proof [for us] as God only appointed Prophet Muhammad (S) for this nation and other than one Prophet and one Divinely sent book, we have nothing else [to take as a proof of the religion].

Thus, he contends that the entire Muslim nation is obligated to follow and obey the Book of God (Qur’an) and the sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (S) and there is no differentiation between the companions or others as everyone is mandated to take their religious responsibilities from the Book and the sunnah.

Therefore, whoever says that after the Qur’an and the sunnah of the Prophet (S) and whatever reaches back to these two sources as a proof [of the religion] for us in the religion of God, that there are other proofs [of legislation] has actually said something about the religion of God which is incorrect.(2)

Therefore, the only things which are a proof over us [in terms of religious mandate] are the Qur’an, Sunnah of the Prophet (S), the unanimous consensus of the Muslim scholars, and the unambiguous intellect and the opinions of the companions – as long as their opinions do not go against the statements of the Prophet (S) - for if it

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goes against the Qur’an and Sunnah then it is definitely not a proof of the religion for us; however, if their opinions are extracted and deduced from the Islamic religious sources, then for them and for those who follow them, they are a proof – and they are not binding on other people – on the mujtahidin and the muqallidin.

The companions of Prophet Muhammad (S) and the first generation after the companions, are divided into two groups: righteous and iniquitous; and accepted and rejected; and when we do not accept the traditions which they claim to have heard Prophet Muhammad (S) say, then we must clarify the point that this is not a condemnation that we reject all of the traditions which the companions of the Prophet (S) related.

More than this, the traditions of the Prophet (S) which have been narrated by the infallible successors of the Prophet (S) - meaning ʿAli Ibn Abi Talib (as) and his family and noble line of successors who were indeed the best of companions of the Prophet (S) are at our disposal and we accept them.

But we do not accept just any tradition narrated by individuals who are unconvincing or completely unknown. This is evidence that we do not reject all statements, nor does this bring any uncertainty to the faith as the Noble Prophet (S) left behind two valuable and solid arguments for the Muslim nation and by holding firmly onto both of them, we will be free from need of

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everything else.

the True Love – meaning God, the Most High. This in actuality is the meaning of the seeking of perfection and felicity for a human being. In addition, if a person shows enmity for an individual due to that person being wicked and evil, then this should lead to the person having one’s entire presence covered with the detestation of all evil and bad which is conceivably possible, and this is the actual meaning of the distancing from corruption on a whole.

2. Contrary to some of the other global religions, Islam looks at the world as a two sided coin - such that due to the societal requirements, the believers have been enjoined to keep in mind the two important beliefs of love and hate. A person is not able to have an affinity for both good and bad, or the manifestations of both good and bad within himself, as these two traits are opposite of one another and cannot be twinned and if they are seen in a person, then this is a sign of hypocrisy.

3. From the psychological aspect, it has also been proven that the best way (generally and specifically speaking) to encourage people towards following the truth and keeping away from corruption and bad deeds is to present them with the best and most perfect examples of both sides of the spectrum as this will definitely have the desired outcome intended for a society.

4. It must be noted that love and hate cannot simply remain “in

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the heart”. Rather, they must become manifest, and as long as their manifestation has no problems from being carried out – both from the point of view of the religious legal limits and also from the rational aspect, then not only is it not a problem to manifest these two states, rather, it becomes something extremely beneficial. This too can be proven from a psychological point of view as the display of a phenomenon leads to that thing being suggested and implanted into the spiritual heart and soul of a person – leading to an eventual state in which that thing becomes second-nature for an individual. It is for this reason that the application of love and hate, in the formation of the spiritual foundation of a person, plays a great role.

5. Voicing our love and hate and showing malediction – which is one of the forms of voicing hatred – is actually the announcement of an impending hazard and the pronouncement of good news; the proclamation of hazard to the masses that they must be aware and on guard from the enemies of their religion – enemies who are constantly in wait, hoping to snatch a person’s faith away and to misguide them from the straight path. Know that such people have definitely been maledicted against and are not the kinds of people whom we should be following. Expressing our love is a form of announcement of good news to the people that they should know that we have

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perfect and flawless examples and if we follow them, then we will reach to the Truth and that we will eventually make it towards the Divine, and this is in reality, one of the manifestations of enjoining the good and forbidding the evil (al-amr bil maʿruf wa nahi ʿanil munkar) on a societal level.

6. Due to certain reasons, the companions of Prophet Muhammad (S) hold a special status because they are people who had seen the Prophet (S); they heard him speak and they listened to the statements which he made, and they saw firsthand the way that he led his life. From another point of view, due to the self-sacrifice which some of them offered in the protection and spreading of the religion of Islam, they are worthy of having our respect, and it is for this reason that the Muslims pay special attention to them. From a different perspective, those people who truly tried to prevent the advancement and were the reason for misguidedness within the Islamic society enacted the greatest damage to Islam and the Muslims. It is for this reason that we must differentiate between the good and bad role models which exist amongst the midst of the companions of Prophet Muhammad (S) - and the measuring stick for judging them is the primary role model which we all have – the Messenger of God (S) - just as Allah (SWT) says in the Qur’an:

لَقَدْ کَانَ لَکُمْ فِی رَسُولِ اللهِ أُسْوَهٌ حَسَنَهٌ...

“Indeed in the Messenger of

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God [Muhammad] is the best role model for you…”(1)

the unadulterated pages of history, one will definitely see the manifestations of hypocrisy, oppression and misguidedness and this should fill one with detest towards those historical criminals.

Certainly we must keep the following point in mind that when it comes to specific individuals, one must be careful that one only evokes malediction upon those for whom there are solid arguments that clearly indicate that within those individuals existed the traits which would validate the evoking of malediction upon them.

In instances of questionable ethical traits [which they may or may not have displayed] one must be sure to evoke malediction upon such people only after proof has been established, as it is not permissible that one carries out this action except with solid proofs.

Therefore, evoking malediction upon the companions of the Prophet (S) who have not shown any proofs for them to be imprecated against will definitely bring about damage to the unity of the Muslims.

In addition, it must also be noted that rather than resorting to exaggeration when it comes to evoking malediction in the religious gatherings and in the various forms of mass media, one should instead make use of rational arguments which are impartial and balanced and are backed up with proofs (from the Islamic texts), and that this should be the sort of culture which is spread throughout the masses [meaning using logical discussions and debates rather than just the act of mere malediction].

There is no greater interest over the convergence and unity of the Muslims

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with one another which can be imaged which would necessitate that the usage of any coarse and abrasive words of disparagement against the revered personalities of the majority of the Muslims.

Therefore, everyone must think in this same way and keep away from any sort of discussions on the sidelines [which would bring about ill feelings amongst the Muslims].

Through practical steps, we should lay down a course for the advancement of the principle goals of Islam and the Muslims and indeed the best and most practical example which we have is embodied in the life history of the Infallibles (as) as they show us the best examples that we need in order for us to traverse this path.

In addition, by reviewing the ways of the Commander of the Faithful ʿAli Ibn Abi Talib (as), we see points of guidance which he was able to convey to the second caliph, ʿUmar – all of which were done simply to protect and strengthen Islam and the Muslims.

In the book, Mustadrak ʿala al-sahihayn, as narrated by Saʿid b. Musayyab it has been mentioned that: “ʿUmar gathered the people together and asked them: ‘From what day should we start the calendar [of the Muslims]?’

Each of the people present gave their own opinions however ʿUmar was not satisfied with what he heard. At that time, ʿAli Ibn Abi Talib (as) said: ‘Start the Muslim calendar from the day that the Messenger of God migrated and left the land of polytheism [Mecca].’” ʿUmar

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accepted his suggestion and thus the Islamic calendar began with the Hijrah – the migration to Medina.”(1)

In the book, al-Bidayah wa al-nihayah, it has been cited that when ʿUmar wanted to date writings which had been done up until that point, he wished to start [Islamic] history from the date of the birth of the Prophet of God (S).

Later on, he changed his mind and said that he would start it from the biʿthah (the official appointment of Prophet Muhammad (S) to prophethood). At this point in time, ʿAli Ibn Abi Talib (as) gave his opinion that they should take the Hijrah or migration from Mecca to Medina as the starting point to which ʿUmar agreed and began to use this date in his writings.(2)

In the book, The History of Tabari, as narrated by Ibn ʿUmar, it has been mentioned that after the conquest of Qadisiyyah and Damishq (The Levant), ʿUmar (b. Al-Khattab) gathered the people in Medina together and said to them: “In your opinion, how much wealth from the public treasury should I be allowed to use on my own personal self?’ Those present each spoke out with an opinion, however ʿAli (as) remained silent.

ʿUmar said: ‘O ʿAli! What do you think?’ To this, ʿAli (as) replied: ‘Only that amount which brings about ease for you and your family and other than this, there is no more wealth from the public treasury which is permissible for you.’ Everyone present replied: ‘The [correct] opinion is that of ʿAli

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Ibn Abi Talib.’”(1)

In addition, in the book Rabiʿ al-abrar it has been mentioned that: “During the era of the reign of ʿUmar b. al-Khattab, a discussion once ensued in his presence in regards to the numerous precious, expensive chains which were upon the Kaʿbah, used as decorations.

A group of people said to him: ‘If we were to sell them and use that money to mobilize and equip the Muslim army, the reward would be much greater [than just having them hang on the Kaʿbah]. What need does the Kaʿbah have for these chains!?’ ʿ

Umar took the decision to do as others suggested and to take the chains on the Kaʿbah and sell them, however ʿAli  said to him: ‘This Qurʾan was revealed to the Prophet (S) and at that time, there were four forms of income which were expressly spoken about: the first is the inheritance of the Muslims (and amongst the inheritors who are entitled to a portion, one is God); the second is the khums (which God has mentioned in the Qurʾan); the third is the zakat (which God has also specifically spoken about and has also mentioned how this wealth should be used); the fourth are the chains of the Kaʿbah which were present even in that day [during the era of the Prophet (S)] – however God left them as they were and did not speak about them – not because He forgot to mention them and not because these were hidden from the

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sight and knowledge of God.

Thus, you need not think about those chains - just leave them where they are – just as God and His Prophet did.’ ʿUmar replied and said: ‘If you were not here, we would have been disgraced.’ Following this, he [ʿUmar] left the chains as they were.’”(1)

Of course it must be noted that the Commander of the Faithful ʿAli (as) working with ʿUmar and giving him advise was not a sign of Imam ʿAli (as) accepting ʿUmar’s caliphate – rather, it was only done to save the faith of Islam and the Muslims, as it can be seen that during the periods of the caliphate of Abu Bakr, ʿUmar and ʿUthman, he continued to emphasize on his own truthfulness to the seat of caliphate and him being the rightful successor of the Messenger of God (S).

As an example, during the event of the ‘consultative assembly’ that ʿUmar devised in order to choose his own successor, in one of Imam ʿAli’s (as) sermons in regards to the outcome of this assembly he stated: “Nevertheless, I remained patient despite length of period and stiffness of trial, until when he went his way (of death) he put the matter (of caliphate) in a group and regarded me to be one of them. But good heavens! What had I to do with this “consultation”? Where was any doubt about me with regard to the first of them that I was now considered akin to these ones? But I remained

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low when they were low and flew high when they flew high.

One of them turned against me because of his hatred and the other got inclined the other way due to his in-law relationship and this thing and that thing, until the third man of these people stood up with heaving breasts between his dung and fodder.”(1)

In addition, it has been mentioned in the commentary of Nahj al-balagha that Imam ʿAli (as) said the following to Ibn ʿAbbas: ‘It is for this reason that I entered into that gathering of the ‘consultative assembly’ [to decide on the next caliph] as before this, ʿUmar had said that he heard the Prophet of Allah say, ‘Nubuwwah and Imamah will never be combined in one house.’ I went into this consultative assembly just to show the people his contradictory actions with the (supposed) statement [from the Noble Prophet] which he was claiming.’”(2)

In addition, it has also been mentioned in Nahj al-balagha that ʿAli (as) said the following to ʿAbd al-Rahman b. ʿAwf: “ʿUmar knew that you and the son of your uncle, Saʿd and your brother-in-law (ʿUthman) all share the same opinions, and yet he still ordered that those who disobey you should be killed, whereas you very well know that I am much more worthy for this (caliphate) than anyone else.

I swear by God that I will be submissive [to what happens] as long as the affairs of the Muslims are protected and there is no oppression over them –

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even if I see that I myself am subjugated - and all of this is only due to the rewards and worthiness of patience and also due to the lack of desire which I have to the gold and glitter [of this world] and it is this which will take precedence [in my life].”(1)

It has been mentioned in the book, Al-Irhsad, as narrated by Jundab b. ʿAbdullah that: “I went to see ʿAli Ibn Abi Talib (as) in Medina just after the people had sworn the oath of allegiance to ʿUthman and saw him reflecting on the sad state of affairs and said to him: ‘What have your people done?’ He replied: ‘We must have beautiful patience.’ I said to him: ‘Glory be to God! I swear by God that you are the most patient [of all].’

He replied: ‘If I do not show patience, then what else shall I do!? The people are all looking at the Quraysh and the Quraysh are saying: ‘If the caliphate falls into the hands of the family of Muhammad (S) then it will never reach into the hands of anyone else [from any other tribe], however if it is allowed to go to others, then it will be passed around amongst others.’”(2)

the societal requirements and is one of the ways to encourage people towards the truth and realities of Islam, and it is a mechanism by way the masses are kept away from corruption and destruction.

How is it possible that a person refrains from renouncing those who are worthy of being repudiated whereas God, the Most High, says in the Qur’an:

قَدْ کَانَتْ لَکُمْ أُسْوَهٌ حَسَنَهٌ فِی إِبْرَاهِیمَ وَالَّذِینَ مَعَهُ إِذْ قَالُوا لِقَوْمِهِمْ إِنَّا بُرَآءُ مِنْکُمْ وَمِمَّا تَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللهِ کَفَرْنَا بِکُمْ وَبَدَا بَیْنَنَا وَبَیْنَکُمُ الْعَدَاوَهُ وَالْبَغْضَآءُ أَبَداً

“There is certainly a good exemplar for you in Abraham and those who were with him, when they said to their own people, ‘Indeed we repudiate you and whatever you worship besides God. We disavow you, and between you and us there has appeared enmity and hate forever….”(1)

However it must be noted that some companions of the Messenger of Allah (S)- meaning those who accepted the call to Islam and went through extreme pressures while in Mecca and resorted to various means in order to safeguard their religion, and even the Muslims who after the migration to Medina shed their blood to water this new-sapling called Islam in the initial wars, as well as the individuals who after the death of the Messenger of Allah (S) said farewell to their homes and possessions and went forth in the sacred struggle – all of these groups of individuals are to be congratulated, honoured and respected.

Similar to a candle, they “burnt” while trying to

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give light to their surroundings – and no Muslims have a difference of opinion in regards to these self-sacrificing individuals, who were true and noble companions.

Rather, the debate and examination is in regards to the other companions of the Prophet (S) - because of the fact that they were not flawless. When they intentionally performed a sin and fit into the criteria for one who is worthy of having malediction evoked upon them – then what is the religious ruling on passing judgement over such individuals?

Naturally, the ruling of such people, as it would be for anyone other than them who are in the same position of committing such an act is the same [and thus they should and must be open to critique and criticism when they openly and intentionally violate the Islamic laws].

Therefore, if the Shiʿa seek to distance themselves from an identifiable group of “companions” of the Noble Prophet (S) then it is not because they are considered as “companions”; rather, evoking the malediction of God upon this limited group of individuals known as the “companions” is due to the fact that even though they saw the Prophet (S), and were able to benefit from him and his magnanimous status, however they actively and consciously decided to stay in their state of spiritual negligence and to act against the orders and commandments of the Noble Prophet (S) such that they deserve that the Muslims distance themselves from them – as the Noble Qur’an has stated:

إِنَّ الَّذِینَ یُؤْذُونَ

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اللهَ وَرَسُولَهُ لَعَنَهُمُ اللهُ فِی الدُّنْیا وَالآخِرَهِ وَأَعَدَّ لَهُمْ عَذاباً مُهِیناً

“Indeed those who torment God and His Apostle are cursed by God in this world and in the Hereafter, and He has prepared a humiliating punishment for them.”(1)

Therefore, if one of the “companions” of Prophet Muhammad (S) did something which led to the Prophet (S) being tormented, then that companion would definitely be found guilty of the infraction mentioned in the verse quoted above, just like if anyone other than one of the companions was to possess any of the traits which would make him worthy of having the mercy of God be removed from him.

Further, he too would definitely be worthy of having the malediction of God inflicted upon him – and of course in Islam, there is no discrimination when it comes to such things – all are equal in front of the law.

It is with this said that the Shiʿa employ the concept of evoking the malediction of God upon certain “companions” who were sources of corruption in the Muslim society - not only during their own era, but even after they left this world and up until the Day of Judgement.

Dawud Sulayman ibni’l Ashʿath al-Sijistani

Sahih al-Bukhari, researched by Muhammad Zuhayr b. Nasir al-Nasir

Tafsir al-Fakhr al-Razi - by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi

Sahih al-Muslim

Al-Nihayah fil gharib al-hadith wa al-athar – by Abu as-Saʿadat al-Mubarak b. Muhammad al-Jazari, researched by Tahir Ahmad al-Zawi and Mahmud Muhammad al-Tanahi

Al-Bidayah wa al-nihayah – by Abu al-Fida’ Ismaʿil b. ʿUmar b. Kathir al-Qarashi

Jamiʿ al-bayan fi ta’wil al-Qurʾan – by Abu Jaʿfar al-Tabari, Researched by Ahmad Muhammad Shakir

Tarikh al-umam wa al-muluk – by Abu Jaʿfar Muhammad b. Jarir al-Tabari

Mustadrak ʿala al-sahihayn – by Hakim al-Nishaburi

hell, to remain in it [forever]. That suffices them. God has cursed them, and there is a lasting punishment for them.”(1)

has cursed them for their unfaith, so few of them have faith. And when there came to them a Book from God, confirming that which is with them —and earlier they would pray for victory over the pagans—so when there came to them what they recognized, they defied it. So may the curse of God be upon the faithless!”(1)

فَبِمَا نَقْضِهِم مِّیثَاقَهُمْ لَعَنَّاهُمْ وَجَعَلْنَا قُلُوبَهُمْ قَاسِیَهً یُحَرِّفُونَ الْکَلِمَ عَنْ مَّوَاضِعِهِ وَنَسُواْ حَظًّا مِّمَّا ذُکِّرُواْ بِهِ وَلاَ تَزَالُ تَطَّلِعُ عَلیٰ خَآئِنَهٍ مِّنْهُمْ إِلاَّ قَلِیلاً مِّنْهُمُ فَاعْفُ عَنْهُمْ وَاصْفَحْ إِنَّ اللهَ یُحِبُّ الْمُحْسِنِینَ

“Then, because of their breaking their covenant We cursed them and made their hearts hard: they pervert words from their meanings, and have forgotten a part of what they were reminded. You will not cease to learn about some of their treachery, excepting a few of them. Yet excuse them and forbear. Indeed God loves the virtuous.”(2)

قُلْ هَلْ أُنَبِّئُکُم بِشَرٍّ مِّن ذٰلِکَ مَثُوبَهً عِنْدَ اللهِ مَن لَّعَنَهُ اللهُ وَغَضِبَ عَلَیْهِ وَجَعَلَ مِنْهُمُ الْقِرَدَهَ وَالْ_خَنَازِیرَ وَعَبَدَ الطَّاغُوتَ أُوْلٰئِکَ شَرٌّ مَّکَاناً وَأَضَلُّ عَن سَوَآءَ السَّبِیلِ

“Say, ‘Shall I inform you concerning something worse than that as a requital from God? Those whom God has cursed and with whom He is wrathful, and turned some of whom into apes and swine, and worshippers of the Rebel! Such are in a worse situation, and more astray from the right way.’”(3)

لُعِنَ الَّذِینَ کَفَرُواْ مِن بَنِی إِسْرَآئِیلَ عَلیٰ لِسَانِ دَاوُودَ وَعِیسَی ابْنِ مَرْیَمَ ذٰلِکَ بِمَا عَصَوا وَّکَانُواْ یَعْتَدُونَ

“The faithless among the Children of Israel were cursed on the

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tongue of David and Jesus son of Mary. That, because they would disobey and used to commit transgression.”(1)

وَأُتْبِعُواْ فیِ هٰذِهِ لَعْنَهً وَیَوْمَ الْقِیَامَهِ بِئْسَ الرِّفْدُ الْمَرْفُودُ

“They were pursued by a curse in this [world], as well as on the Day of Resurrection; evil is the reward conferred [upon them]!”(2)

وَأَتْبَعْنَاهُمْ فیِ هٰذِهِ الدُّنْیَا لَعْنَهً وَیَوْمَ الْقِیَامَهِ هُم مِّنَ الْمَقْبُوحِینَ

“We made a curse pursue them in this world, and on the Day of Resurrection they will be among the disfigured.”(3)

and obey’ and ‘Listen’ and ‘Unẓurna,’ it would have been better for them, and more upright. But God has cursed them for their lack of faith, so they will not believe except a few. O you who were given the Book! Believe in what We have sent down confirming what is with you, before We blot out the faces and turn them backwards, or curse them as We cursed the People of the Sabbath, and God’s command is bound to be fulfilled.”(1)

وَقَالَتِ الْیَهُودُ یَدُ اللهِ مَغْلُولَهٌ غُلَّتْ أَیْدِیهِمْ وَلُعِنُواْ بِمَا قَالُواْ بَلْ یَدَاهُ مَبْسُوطَتَانِ یُنفِقُ کَیْفَ یَشَاء وَلَیَزِیدَنَّ کَثِیرًا مِّنْهُم مَّا أُنْزِلَ إِلَیْکَ مِن رَّبِّکَ طُغْیَانًا وَکُفْرًا وَأَلْقَیْنَا بَیْنَهُمُ الْعَدَاوَهَ وَالْبَغْضَآءُ إِلیٰ یَوْمِ الْقِیَامَهِ کُلَّمَا أَوْقَدُواْ نَارًا لِّلْحَرْبِ أَطْفَأَهَا اللهُ وَیَسْعَوْنَ فِی الأَرْضِ فَسَادًا وَاللهُ لاَ یُحِبُّ الْمُفْسِدِینَ

“The Jews say, ‘God’s hand is tied up.’ Tied up be their hands, and cursed be they for what they say! Rather, His hands are wide open: He bestows as He wishes. Surely many of them will be increased by what has been sent to you from your Lord in rebellion and unfaith, and We have cast enmity and hatred amongst them until the Day of Resurrection. Every time they ignite the flames of war, God puts them out. They seek to cause corruption on the earth, and God does not like the agents of corruption.”(2)

women, and the polytheists, men and women, who entertain a bad opinion of God. For them shall be an adverse turn of fortune: God is wrathful with them and He has cursed them, and prepared for them hell, and it is an evil destination.”(1)

corruption on the earth, and God does not like the agents of corruption.”(1)

all mankind,’ We did not appoint the vision that We showed you except as a test for the people and the cursed tree in the Quran. We deter them, but it only increases them in great rebellion.”(1)

As has been affirmed in the authentic Prophetic statements (ahadith) narrated by all Muslims (Sunni and Shiʿa) the meaning of the ‘cursed tree’ as spoken about in the Noble Qurʾan is the Umayyad dynasty.

To better appreciate this understanding, please reflect upon the follow traditions narrated by the Sunni and Shiʿa.

In his exegesis under the verse mentioned above, Ibn Jarir al-Tabari narrates the following statement from Sahl b. Saʿd: “The Messenger of God saw the clan of so-and-so (the Umayyad dynasty) in a dream depicted as monkeys climbing up and down on his pulpit (mimbar). This brought immense grief to the Prophet such that from that point up until his death, he was never seen smiling and it was the following verse which God revealed to him in regards to what he saw in his dream:

وَمَا جَعَلْنَا الرُّؤیَا الَّتِی أَرَیْنَاکَ إِلاَّ فِتْنَهً لِّلنَّاسِ

In his exegesis of the Noble Qur’an in regards to the verse mentioned above, Al-Qurtubi relates from Sahl b. Saʿd that: “This vision (dream) which the Messenger of God saw in which he witnessed monkeys ascending and descending from his pulpit (mimbar) is in regards to the Umayyad dynasty after which he became extremely depressed and from that day forward until his death, he was never seen to laugh and the verse

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[under review] was revealed to confirm to the Prophet that after him, they would take over the reins of governance of the Islamic community and that God, the Most High would refer to this as a test and tribulation which would be imposed upon the people.”

It has been narrated from Yunis b. ʿAbd al-Rahman b. al-Ashal that he asked one of the Imams in regards to the statement of God: وَمَا جَعَلْنَا الرُّؤیَا الَّتِی أَرَیْنَاکَ إِلاَّ فِتْنَهً لِّلنَّاسِ and the Imam replied: “The Messenger of God saw a dream in which certain members of the Umayyad dynasty were ascending and descending from his pulpit and anytime one ascended, they would prevent people from traversing the path of God.

The Messenger of God saw the humiliation [of Islam and his community] in his dream and with a feeling of great anguish and distress, he woke up from his sleep. It has been narrated that the number of individuals which the Prophet saw in his dream were twelve – all belonging to the Umayyad family and their dynasty.

It was at this point that the Angel Gabriel descended and conveyed this verse of the Qur’an to the Prophet.

It has been narrated by Imam Muhammad b. ʿAli al-Baqir (as), the 5th Imam, that he said: “The verse of the Qur’an: وَمَا جَعَلْنَا الرُّؤیَا الَّتِی أَرَیْنَاکَ إِلاَّ فِتْنَهً لِّلنَّاسِ was in reference to the masses who would be confused (in that particular era) and that the “cursed tree” mentioned in

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the Qur’an was a reference to the Umayyad dynasty.”

anger in him. I sat down and he continued to look at me with anger in his eyes and then he said to me: ‘O ʿUmru! I swear by God that you have indeed insulted me.’ I said to him, ‘I seek refuge in God that I should ever do something to offend you O’ Messenger of God!’ He replied, ‘Indeed whoever offends ʿAli has indeed offended and insulted me.’”

After mentioning this, Hakim goes on to say: “This hadith has a sound chain of transmission, however those two (al-Bukhari and al-Muslim) have not mentioned this in their books. In addition, al-Dhahabi has said that this tradition is sound.”

Ibn Habban, in his Sahih has narrated this in his book of collections.

Al-Haythami, in his book, Majmaʿ al-Zawaid, has narrated [the same] traditions as quoted above and then states, “[Imam] Ahmad and al-Tabarani have also narrated the same traditions in a shortened format and al-Bazzar has narrated the same in an even shorter format and according to [Imam] Ahmad, the chain of narrators are trustworthy.”

It has been narrated from ʿUmru b. Sha’n that: “The Prophet said, ‘Indeed you have upset me.’ I said to him, ‘O Messenger of God! I do not like to hurt you.’ To this he replied, ‘Whoever hurts ʿAli has hurt me.’”

a part of me – that which distresses me, also distresses her and that which hurts me, hurts her.”

إِنَّمَا فَاطِمَهَ بَضْعَهٌ مِنِّی یُؤْذِینِی مَا آذَاهَا وَ یَنْصُبَنِی مَا أَنْصَبَهَا

“Indeed Fatima is a part of me – that which hurts me, hurts her and that which grieves me also grieves her.”

Lord promised us to be true; did you find what your Lord promised you to be true?’ ‘Yes,’ they will say. Then a caller will announce in their midst, ‘May God’s curse be upon the wrongdoers!’”(1)

وَمَنْ أَظْلَمُ مِمَّنِ افْتَرَیٰ عَلیٰ اللهِ کَذِبًا أُوْلٓئِکَ یُعْرَضُونَ عَلیٰ رَبِّهِمْ وَیَقُولُ الأَشْهَادُ هٰؤُلاَءِ الَّذِینَ کَذَبُواْ عَلیٰ رَبِّهِمْ أَلاَ لَعْنَهُ اللهِ عَلیٰ الظَّالِمِینَ

“And who is a greater wrongdoer than him who fabricates a lie against God? They shall be presented before their Lord, and the witnesses will say, ‘It is these who lied against their Lord.’ Look! The curse of God is upon the wrongdoers.”(2)

عَلَی الظَّالِمِینَ

“And who is a greater wrongdoer than him who fabricates a lie against God? They shall be presented before their Lord, and the witnesses will say, ‘It is these who lied against their Lord.’ Look! The curse of God is upon the wrongdoers.”(1)